Ko Lillian Diana Gish (Oketopa 14, 1893 - Hui-tanguru 27, 1993) he wahine, he kaiwhakahaere me te kaituhi taatai a Amerika.
He whetu kiriata rongonui a Gish mai i te tau 1912 ki te tekau tau 1920, he mea hono ki nga kiriata a te kaiwhakahaere a D. W. Griffith.
He nui hoki ana mahi pouaka whakaata mai i te timatanga o te tekau tau atu i 1950 ki te tekau tau atu i 1980, ka kati tana mahi takaro i te taha o Bette Davis i te kiriata 1987 The Whales of August.
Ko nga whakatipuranga tuatahi o Nga Whakatupuranga o Kihi he minita a Dunkard.
Ka whakatuwheratia e to rātau whaea te Majestic For Kitchen, a, ka āwhina nga kōtiro ki te hoko kānga pakū me te mīere ki nga kaihoko o te Whare Pikitia Whakaharahara tahito, e tū mai ana i te taha o te taha.
17 ngā tau o Lillian i te wā i haere ia ki Shawnee, Oklahoma, ki te wāhi noho o te tuakana o James, ko Alfard Grant Gish, me tana hoa rangatira, a Maude.
I mate tōna pāpā ki Nohoro, o Erotere, i te tau kotahi rau e iwa rau e 1912, engari i hoki mai ia ki Ohaio i nga marama torutoru i mua i tēnei.
I te pakeketanga o Lillian rāua ko Dorothy, ka uru rāua ki te whare tapere, i ētahi wā e haere takitahi ana ki nga whakanao rerekē.
I a Gish e mahi tonu ana i runga i te atamira, i te 1913, i a ia e whakahaerehia ana e te Little Devil, i ngaro atu ia i te mate toto.
Ko tana mahi i enei ahuatanga ngawari kua whara i tona io i roto i etahi maihao.
I tino tirohia e ia ona pukenga pakari, ka toro atu ki te mahi peita, e mahi ana hei wahine toa.
Nāna i whakahaere tōna tuahine i a Dorothy i roto i tētahi pikitia, i te whakahoki i Tana Tāne (1920), i te wā i mauria e D. W. Griffith tana waewae ki te tauwāhi.
I whakakorehia e ia te moni, i tono atu kia nui ake te utu me te utu ka taea e te whare wananga te whakamahi i nga putea hei whakapai ake i te kounga o ana kiriata - te utu i nga kaiwhakaari pai, i nga kaituhi taapiri, me era atu. atu
Ko nga waahine rangatira o tera wa, ko Gish raua ko Pickford, he matakite i ora, harakore, i mahi i nga timatanga o te 1930 (whai muri i te whakaurutanga o te tangi, ana i mua o te whakatuturutanga o te Motion Pikitia Whakaputanga Waehere) kua roa ke enei tuunga.
I pīrangi a [Louis Mayer] ki te whakamutu i tētahi whakapae (tūpono i runga i tana kāpeti") ki te tahu i te aroha tūmatanui mō Gish, engari kāore a Lillian i pīrangi ki te mahi i runga i te mata, ki waho, ka hoki atu ki tana aroha tuatahi me ana whare tapere."
I te hokinga ki nga kiriata, i tohua a Gish mo te Tohu Academy mo te Kaitautoko Tautoko Pai rawa atu i te 1946 mo Duel i te Ra.
I whakaarotia a ia mo tētahi momo tūranga i roto i te The Walking and The Wind tata ki Arenī O'Hara, kōkā o te kaikōkiko (e whai tahi ana i a Papā O'Nga), ki te kaimamao me Belle Watling (i haere ki Tōna Munson).
I puta ia hei Emepara Dowager Maria Feodorovna i roto i te puoro i ora noa i te kotahi mano e iwa rau ono tekau 1965, Anya.
I uiui ia i roto i te rangatū pakipūmeka o te pouaka whakaata, o Hollywood: He Hākaritanga o te Whitiāhua Ngū o Amerika (1980).
She whetū tōna i runga i te Hīkoi rongonui o Kararehe i te takiwā o te 1720 o Vine Street.
I te whakataetae Cannes, i toa a Gish i te tangi tuuru 10-meneti i mua o te mano.
"I pāohotia Te wāhanga ""Mārena mo te Kōhuru"" i te 9 o Mahuru 1943."
I whakawhiwhia ia ki te Tohu Whakahonore a Academy i te tau 1971, ā, i te tau 1984 i whakawhiwhia ia ki te Tohu AFI Life Achievement Award.
I whakawhiwhia e te Whare Waananga ki a Gish te tohu honore o Doctor of Performing Arts i te aonga ake.
Whai muri i te matenga o Gish i te tau 1993, i kohia e te Whare Waananga he moni hei whakanui ake i tana taiwhanga whakaatu i nga taonga whakamaharatanga i riro mai i te whenua o Gish.
I te tata tonu o te pāhonotanga i waenganui i a ia me D. W. Griffith e ētahi tūhononga herekore, kāore anō tētahi take i mōhiotia e Gish, ahakoa i mōhio tonu ētahi o rātau hoa mahi i āta whakaurua rātau.
I nga 1920s, ko te hononga a Gish me Duell hei mea kino mo te whakamaaramatanga i a ia e kii ana i nga korero mo te whanaungatanga.
I whakanui a George Jean Nathan i te mahi rangatira a Gish - te whakataurite i a ia ki a Eleonora Duse.
I te wā o te ngangau tōrangapū i te US i mau tonu atu i te tīmatatanga o te Pakanga Tuatahi o te Ao i Ūpoko tae noa ki te whakaeke i te Poho o Pearl, ka pupuritia e ia tētahi āhuatanga kōrero kore raweke.
Ko Hohepa Frank me hinengaro (4 o Whiringahora, 1895 –1 o Aotearoa 1966), e mōhiotia ana he kaitapere Amerikana, kaitapere Amerikana, kaitapere hīkaka, kaitapere whitiāhua, kaituhituhi, kaimahi, kaimahi whakataetae.
Ka whakapeka tana mahi i tana hainatanga ki Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, a, ka ngaro tōna tino rangatiratanga ā-tohunga.
Ko te nuinga o nga kiriata a Keaton mai i te 1920s e tino paingia ana, penei i a Sherlock Jr. (1924), The General (1926), me The Cameraman (1928).
Ko "Joseph Hallie" tona koroua, ko Joseph "Joe", he whakaaturanga haerere na Harry Houdini e kiia ana ko te Kamupene Hauora India Mohawk, te Kamupene Maakete Whare Maama o India, i mahi i runga i te papaanga me te hoko i tetahi riihi tarukino i te taha o te U.S.
I roto i nga korero a Keaton, ono ona marama i te wa i pa ai te parekura, na Harry Houdini i tapaina te ingoa ki a ia.
Ko te nuinga o te mahi he tātuhi kōrero.
Kakau He tueke i tuia ki roto i nga kakahu o Keaton hei awhina i a ia ki te panga tonu.
Engari, i rite tonu te whakaatu a Buster i nga mana, kaore ōna ururua, i nga wheua whati rānei.
He maha nga wā i mate ai ahau mehemea kaore a au i āhei ki te whenua pēnei i te poti.
I te kitenga o tenei ka iti ake te kata o te hunga whakarongo, ka mau ia ki tana whakaaturanga rongonui i a ia e mahi ana.
Ahakoa nga raru o te ture me te haerenga kino i nga whare puoro i te United Kingdom, he whetu piki haere a Keaton i te whare tapere.
On a couch in 1917, he met Roscoe's "Fatty" Arbuckle at Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle had a contract with Joseph M. Schenck.
He tangata maori a Buster i tana kiriata tuatahi, The Butcher Boy, i utua ai ia i taua wa tonu.
No muri ka kii a Keaton ko ia tonu te kaiwhakahaere tuarua o Arbuckle me tana tari katoa.
I hangai ki runga i te whakaari angitu, The New Henrietta, kua oti nei te kiriata kotahi, i raro i te taitara Te Reme, me Douglas Fairbanks te kaiarahi.
I hangaia e ia etahi o nga whakatangitangi e rua-hurori, tae atu ki te Kotahi wiki (1920), Te Whare Taakaro (1921), Cops (1922), me te Whare Hiko (1922).
E maumahara ana a Leo McCarey, Kaiwhakahaere Toihau, ki ngā rā freewheeling mo te hanga i ngā whakaaturanga katakata , i kii ia, "I whakamātau katoa mātou ki te tāhae i ngā kaituhi o ērā atu."
I te wa o te rerewhana wai-tanika i Sherlock Jr., ka whati a Keaton i tona kaki i te taunga mai o te awa wai ki runga ki a ia mai i te pourewa wai, engari kaore ia i mohio tae noa ki nga tau i muri mai.
Ko te ahua o Keaton i puta ohorere, na te matapihi tuwhera kotahi.
Hei taapiri ki a Steamboat Bill, Jr. (1928), nga kiriata whakaari a Keaton, Our Blessing (1923), The Navigator (1924), Sherlock Jr. (1924), Seven Chances (1925), The Cameraman (1928), me The General (1926).
Ahakoa e kiia ana ko Keaton te tino whakatutukitanga, i whakawhiwhia te kiriata ki nga arotake Mixed i taua waa.
Ko tana tohatoha, United Artists, i tohe ki te kaiwhakahaere mahi nana i tirotiro nga Moni me te whakararu i etahi ahuatanga korero.
Ka āta whakamātauria e nga kaiwhakaari ngā hōtuhi reo kē, he rārangi ruarua i te wā kotahi, a, ka pūhia inamata.
Ko te kaiwhakahaere ko Jules White, ko tana tino aro ki te slapstick me te tinihanga i pai ai te nuinga o enei kiriata ki nga kirikiri rongonui e toru a Stooges o White.
Heoi, na te tohe a te kaiwhakahaere White ki te puri, ki te taikaha o te taikaha i hua ake ai nga tarau poto o Columbia i hanga e ia.
I hanga e ia tana whakaaturanga whakamutunga o El Moderno Barba Azul (1946) i Mexico; he iti rawa te mahinga o te kiriata nei, ana kaore pea i kitea i te United States tae noa ki tana whakaputanga ki VHS i nga tau 1980, i raro i te taitara Boom i te Marama.
I te whakaaturanga Good Old Summertime, i arahina e Keaton i ngā whetu a Judy Garland rāua ko Van Johnson mо̄ tā rāua whakaaturanga tuatahi, i tutaki rāua ki te huarahi.
He kaha te tauhohenga mo tetahi teihana i Los Angeles ki te tuku i a Keaton tana ake whakaaturanga, i whakapāohotia hoki i te tau 1950.
I kitea hoki te wahine a Buster Keaton a Eleanor i roto i te raarangi (ko Juliet tae atu ki a Buster's Romeo i roto i tetahi whakaahua iti-whare tapere).
Ko nga whakaaturanga a Keaton i nga pouaka whakaata i nga tau 1950 me 1960 i awhina i te whakahoki mai i te hiahia ki a ia mo ana kiriata puku.
Tae noa ki ōna rima tekau, i angitu te hanga anō o Hine ki ana mahi tahito, tae atu ki tētahi poapoa kotahi i whāia ai tētahi waewae ki runga i te tēpu, kātahi ka tāhae i te tuarua o ona waewae ki runga, a, ka mau i te tūnga mārō i waenganui i te wā poto i mua i te paorotanga ki te papa atamira.
He tānga ta Keaton o ngā āhuahira Three Ages, Sherlock Jr., Steamboat Bill, Jr., me College (e ngaro ana i tētahi tīpana), me ngā piripū poto "The Boat” me "My Wife's Relations", ā, i whakawhitia e Keaton me Rohauer ki te whitiāhua Cellulose acetate mai i te whakapehapeha o ngā hea whitiāhua nitrate."
I roto i te raupapa pouaka whakaata wahangu mo Simon Pure Beer i mahia i te tau 1962 e Jim Mohr i Buffalo, New York, ka hoki ano a Keaton ki etahi o nga kaakaa o ona ra kiriata wahangu.
I A Hakihe 1958, he whetū manuhiri a Kikiria i te wāhanga A Very Merry Christmas"" o te The Donna Reed Show i ABC."
I te 1960, i hoki mai ia ki te MGM mo te wa mutunga, me te purei i te raiona i te urunga o te tau 1960 o Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
I mahi a ia me te comedian Necotine i runga i tētahi kaiwhakahautū pouaka whakaata e huaina ana ko "Medicine Man," ngā tirohanga tākaro mōna i te 12 o Hānuere 1962 — te rā i mua i te matenga opākā. "
I haere a ia mai i tētahi pito o Canada ki tētahi i runga i tētahi motokā mīhini, e mau ana i tōna pōtae poaka tūturu, ā, ka mahi pēnā ki ērā i roto i ngā pikitia i mahia e ia i te 50 tau ki mua.
I te tau 1965 ano, i haere ia ki Itari ki te whai waahi ki Due Marines e un Generale, ko Franco Franchi me Ciccio Ingrassia.
Ko tētahi o ōna pūngaoho moke katoa ko te The Frozen North (1922), ko tētahi Western melodramas o William S. Hart, pēnei i te Hell's Hinges (1916) me te The Narrow Trail (1917).
Ko nga Kaitoro o nga 1920 i mohio ki te parody me te whakaaro he ngahau te kiriata.
Na te poto hoki i whakaatu mai ai te ariā o te mange mahia, tērā pea i takea mai i te mahi a te kaitiaki pire (ko Petter Te Great).
Kia mōhio mai: E hē ana te pūtake i te pīata auau a te Keaton's hei "Great stoneface."
Ko Keaton te kaitapere wahine a Dorothy Sebastian i timata i nga tau 1920 me Kathleen Key i nga tau moata o te 1930.
Kua mawhiti mai tetahi kaitiwhaiti me nga hianga a Harry Houdini.
I tono ia mо̄ te whakawehenga mārena i te tau 1935 i muri i tana kitenga i a Keaton rāua ko Leah Clampitt Sewell, te hoa rangatira o te tangata whai miriona, a Barton Sewell, ki tētahi hotera ki Santa Barbara.
I whakamutua e ia te inu mo nga tau e rima.
I mau tonu te mārena tae noa ki tōna matenga.
I te wā o ōna rā whakamutunga i te hōhipera, ka whakaroa a Keaton, a, kai te tino whakaroa te rūma, e hiahia ana ki te hoki ki te kāinga.
Ko te whakaaturanga, na Sidney Sheldon, nana hoki i whakahaere te kiriata, i ahu mai i runga i te oranga o Keaton engari he maha nga hapa me te whakakotahi i ana wahine tokotoru ki te ahua kotahi.
I whakatapua kia nui ake te aro atu ki ngā mahi o Keaton's ki te mahi, he maha ngā tāngata kei roto i te mematanga mai i te umanga tātaki ataata, pikitia hoki: ngā kaitapere, ngā kaipānui, ngā kaituhituhi, ngā kaiwaiata, ngā pūrānui whakairoiro, ngā kaipūoro me ngā kaituhituhi, tae atu ki te hunga e mīharo ana ki te mahi tinihanga a Buster Keaton.
I kii a Hirschfeld ko nga whetu kiriata hou he uaua ake ki te whakaatu, ko nga kaitoi kiriata wahangu penei i a Laurel me Hardy me Keaton " he rite ki a raatau kaataata ".
I kii te kaikо̄rero kiriata, a Roger Ebert, "Ko te mea nui o ngā tangata whakahangareka wahangū ko Buster Keaton, ehara na ona mahi anake, engari na te aha i mahi ia i ona mahi."
Kua huaina e te kaituhi a Mel Brooks ia Buster Keaton hei kaiwhakaawe nui, e mea ana: "He nui taku nama kia (Buster) i runga i nga taumata e rua: Tuatahi, nā te mea he kaiwhakaako nui ki ahau (he kaituhituhi), ā, tuarua, he tangata e mātakitaki ana i tēnei tangata nui e mahi ana i ēnei mea whakamīharo.
Ko Johnny Knoxville te kaiwhakaari me te kaitoi whakaari e kii ana i a Keaton hei whakahihiko i te wa e whakaputa whakaaro ana mo nga kaupapa Jackass.
I tino awangawanga a Lewis i te kii a Eleanor ko ona whatu rite ki a Keaton.
I te tau kotahi mano e iwa rau e 1964, ka kōrerotia e ia ki tētahi kaiwawao, i te hanganga o tēnei porohita poaka", "i tīmata ia ki te Stetson pai, ka tapahia", ka whakakeke i te whango ki te wai huka."
Ko nga tupuna o tona papa ko Welsh.
I tiimata a Lloyd ki te mahi tahi me Roach, nana nei i hanga tana ake whare pukapuka i te tau 1913.
I te 1919, ka wehe ia i a Lloyd ki te whai i ona wawata nui.
He mea pānui, ko te Lloyd ka mātakitaki a Davis i tana tino pīrangi ki a ia.
Ka neke atu te Harold Lloyd i te hunga āhuatanga kino, ka whakaahua hoki i te tangata katoa i runga i te maia me te manawa māia.
Hei waihanga i tōna pūāhua hou Lloyd, ka mauria e ia tētahi mōhiti kōaro, engari i mau kākahu pūnoa; nō mua rā, i mau i a ia he tīhae kākahu pōhēhē me ngā kākahu tūturu, he mea pēnei i te Chaplinesque "Lonesome Luke. """
He tūturu rātau, a, ka taea te whakangāwari te whakaaro atawhai."
I te Rātapu, i te 24 o awatea 1919, i a ia e whakaaro ana ki ētahi whakaahua taihoa whakatairanga i te Pukapuka Whakaahua o Los Angeles Witzel, ka tangohia e ia tāna i whakaaro he pomu pouaka, a, ka ū ki te hikareti.
Lloyd i roto i te whakamāramatanga o te hikareti i te hukihuki o te pōma, i te pakūtanga, ka tahu kino hoki tōna kanohi, te uma, a, ka whara tōna kanohi.
I wehe a Lloyd raua ko Roach i te tau 1924, a ko Lloyd te kaihanga motuhake o tana ake kiriata.
Katoa enei kiriata i tino angitu, whai hua hoki, ana ka riro ko Lloyd te kaiwhakaari kiriata tino whai utu i nga tau 1920.
Heoi anō, kāore i whakapā atu tana pūāhua mata whiwhi mata ki ngā whakaminenga whitiāhua Nuku Nui o nga tau kotahi mano e 1930.
I te 23 o Maehe, 1937, i hokona atu e Lloyd i te whenua o tōna whare taupuni, Horald Lloyd Motion Picture Company, ki Te Hāhi o Ihu Karaiti o te Hunga Tapu o ngā Rā o Muri Nei.
I hoki mai a ia mo tētahi āhua hākinakina tāpiri i roto i Te Hara o Hāwhe Didlebock, he manaakitanga hākinakina ki te mahi o te Lloyd, i whakahaeretia e Peritoni Sturges, a, i pūteatia e te toko Howard Hughes.
He rereke nga whakaaro o Lloyd me Sturges mo nga korero me te whawhai i nga wa katoa o te kopere; I tino awangawanga a Lloyd ahakoa i noho a Sturges e toru ki te wha marama mo te tuhinga o te tuatoru tuatahi o te kiriata, "te rua hautoru whakamutunga o taua kiriata i tuhituhi ia i roto i te wiki iti iho ranei "". "
Ko etahi i kite i te The Old Gold Comedy Theatre me te mea he maama ake te ahua ki te Lux Radio Theatre, ana ko etahi o nga kiriata rongonui me te reo irirangi rongonui o te waa, tae atu ki a Fred Allen, June Allyson, Lucille Ball, Ralph Bellamy, Linda Darnell, Ko Susan Hayward, Herbert Marshall, Dick Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Jane Wyman, me Alan Young.
He maha nga tau ki muri, ka kitea ngā kōpae paheko o te 29 o ngā whakaaturanga i te kāinga o te Lloyd, ā, ināianei, ka rāpoi haere rātau i waenganui i ngā kaihautū reo irirangi o neherā.
He Kaihauturu o mua ia mo te whare tapu o Al-Malaikah i Los Angeles, a i te mutunga ka tohua a ia hei Imperial Potentate o nga Shriners o Amerika ki te Raki mo te tau 1949-50.
I honohono a Lloyd me te Tohu me te Whakapaipai o te Kooti Whakahonore Knight i te 1955 a ka tuutuhia e ia he Kaititiro Whanui honore, 33 °, i te 1965.
I kii, hei taahiraa tuatahi, ka tuhia e Lloyd nga korero mo tona oranga mo Simon me Schuster.
I mōhiotia whanuitia ia mо̄ ana whakaahua tapapōro, pēnei i te Bettie Page, i te tīweke tārua Dixie Evans, mo te maha o nga pukapuka tangata.
Kore rawa mātou e mea kia purei rātau ki ngā piana."
Kua tae tata rātou, engari kāore anо̄ kua tae ki te taumata”
I te tōmua o nga tau o te 1960, e rua ngā pikitia whakahiato i hangaia e Raiti, e whakaatu ana i ngā tirohanga mai i ana karaehe tahito, te Ao Horald Lloyd's World of Comedy me the Funny Side of Life.
I tukuna e Te Ora-Wā ētahi o ngā rīpene āhuahira kia tūturu ake, mā te whakamahi hoki i ētahi o ngā tapeke Scharf's i whakaritea e Lloyd.
Ko te pakipūmeka Brownlow me Gill i whakaatuhia mai hei waahanga o te raupapa PBS a American Masters, a i puta te hiahia hou ki nga mahi a Lloyd i te United States, engari kaore i kitea nga kiriata.
I whāngaitia anō e rātau a Gloria Freeman (1924–1986) i ia September 1930, i whakaingoa anōtia e rātau ko Marjorie Elizabeth Lloyd, engari i mōhiotia ia ko "Peggy" mō te nuinga o tōna oranga.
I mate a Davis i te mate ngakau i te 1969, e rua tau i mua o te matenga o Lloyd.
I te tau 1925, i te tiketike o tana mahi whitiāhua, ka uru a Lloyd ki Freemasonry i te Alexander Hamilton Lodge No.
I te tau 1926, ka noho ia hei Scottish Rite Mason 32 ° i te Raorao o Los Angeles, California.
I te taonga whaiaro a Lloyd, o ana whitiāhua ngū (kātahi anō ka āhua wātea he $2 miriona) i hunaia i a Ateheta 1943 i te ahitanga o tana taupuni pikitia.
Na te ahi i whakangaro te whare matua me nga hanganga o waho.
I whakahonoretia a Lloyd i te tau 1960 mo tana koha ki nga pikitia nekehanga me tetahi whetu i te Hollywood Walk of Fame kei 1503 Vine Street.
Ko te whakahua tuarua ko te hianga ki a Chaplin, i tera wa kua he a ia i a McCarthyism a kua whakakorengia tana urunga ki te United States.
Ko Gladys Marie Smith (8 o Ēperira 1892 – 29 Me 1979), e mōhiotia ana he kaimahi mātauranga ko Mary Pickford, he kaiwhakaari whitiāhua rānei o Canadian-American, he kaitātaki mātauranga e rima tekau tau tekau tau.
Ko tana papa, ko John Charles Smith te tama a te manene English mai i nga Mete, a he maha nga mahi rereke i mahia e ia.
Kia pai ai nga whanaunga o tōna tāne, ka iriiritia e te whaea o Pickford ana tamariki hei Methodists, he hāhi a to rātau matua.
Na te kaupae i mahi a Gladys, tētahi whaea me ōna teina tokorua i te Hononga o United States, i mahi i nga kamupene moe-tuatoru me te tākaro.
I te mutunga ka uru a Gladys hei mahi tautoko i te takaro Broadway 1907, Nga Warrens o Virginia.
I muri i te whakaotinga o te Broadway whakahaere me te pānui i te whakatangi, ka kore anō a Pickford e mahi.
Tere tonu tana kite i te māmā ake o te whakatau whitiāhua i te whakatauranga whakaata o te rā.
Kia rite ki te kōrero a Pickford mo tōna angitu i te Biograph:I i tākaro wāhine māwhiti me ngā pono me ngā wāhine o ngā whenua katoa ... I whakatau ahau mēnā ka taea e au te whakauru atu ki ngā pikitia maha e taea ana, ka mōhiotia ahau, ā, tērā pea ka hiahiatia taku mahi.
I te Hānuere 1910, ka haere a Pickford me tētahi kaimahi Tākupu ki Los Angeles.
Kaore i whakauruhia nga kaiwhakaari ki nga whiwhinga i te kamupene a Griffith.
I wehe a Pickford i a Biograph i te marama o Tihema 1910.
I hoki ia ki Broadway i te mahinga a David Belasco o A Good Little Devil (1912).
I te 1913, i whakatau ia ki te mahi noa i te kiriata.
I mahue i a Pickford te atamira kia hono ki te rārangi whetū a Zukor.
Ko nga whakaari-Comedy-dramas, peera i te I te Bishop's Carriage (1913), ko Caprice (1913), otirā ko Hearts Adrift (1914), i kore ai ia e kaha ki nga kaiwhakaari kiriata.
I tukuna a Tess of the Storm Country e rima wiki i muri mai.
Ko Charlie Chaplin anake, i paku nei i te rongonui o Pickford i te tau 1916, he rite ano te kukume o te kaitoro me te hunga whakarongo.
I noho anō a ia hai rōpū whakahaere mo te Kaporeihana Kiriata o Pickford.
Na te korenga o tōna tamarikitanga noa, he pai ki a ia te hanga i ēnei pikitia.
I Akuhata 1918, kua pau te kirimana a Pickford, ana ko ia, he wheua, kaore i whakaae ki nga korero a Zukor mo te Whakahouanga, ana ka whakawhiwhia ia ki te $ 250,000 ki te wehe i te pakihi pikitia.
I roto i United Artists, ka haere tonu a Pickford ki te hanga me te mahi i ana ake whitiāhua; ka taea hoki e ia te tohatoha rātau i a ia e kōwhiri ana.
"I roto i tenei wa, i hangaia e ia a Little Annie Rooney (1925), tetahi kiriata i whakatangitangi a Pickford i a Sparrows (1926), i whakaranu i te Dickensian me tana momo kaikiri korero Tiamana, me Taku Kotiro Pai (1927), he tangata aroha te pukuhohe e whakaatu ana i tana tane a Charles ""Buddy"" Rogers."
I tākaro ia i tētahi wāhitau manawa i Coquette (1929), tana kōrero tuatahi, he tūranga i tapahia ai ōna rīngi rongonui hai pōtae tau 1920.
Kaore te iwi whānui i urupare ki a ia i roto i nga mahi tino mātanga.
Na te taenga tata mai o nga kōrero i whakatūria nga kaitapere o Karaiti.
I tūpāpaku a ia i te kiriata e whakatau ana i te tau1933 i muri i te toru o ngā rahunga utu nui me tōna āhua kiriata whakamutunga he Muna.
I te Pakanga Tuatahi o te Ao i whakatairanga ia i te hoko o Liberty Bonds, me te whakaputa korero nui mo te kohi moni, mai i Washington, D.C., i reira i hokona atu ai e ia he hononga ki te taha o Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Theda Bara, me Marie Dressler.
I roto i te whaikōrero kotahi i roto i te Chicago, ka hokona e ia he here e rima miriona tāra.
I te mutunga o te Pakanga Tuatahi o te Ao, i hapu a Pickford i te Motion Picture Relief Fund, he whakahaere hei awhina i nga kaiwhakaari rawakore.
I te mutunga, i te 1940, i taea e te Putea te hoko whenua me te hanga i te Motion Picture Country House me te Hospital, i Woodland Hills, California.
I tono ia (a kua riro) enei mana i te 1916, i a ia e kirimana ana ki te Famous Players o Zukor i te Famous Plays (i muri mai ko te Paramount).
Ko te Kaporeihana a Mary Pickford he kamupene nekehanga pikitia-tango a Pickford.
Ko ngā kaiwhakanoa (tētahi wāhanga hoki o ngā studios) i whakaritea kia whakaaturia ngā whakanao kamupene ki ngā wāhi whitiāhua o te kamupene.
He kamupene tuari anake, e tuku āhei ana ngā kaiwhakarato whitiāhua takitahi ki ōna ake mata, tae atu ki te rēti i ngā whare rangitahi kāore anō kia pukapukatia e ētahi atu kamupene.
He kaihoko tahi, tae atu ki te kaiwhakatū me te whetū o ōna ake pikitia, ka noho a Pickford te wahine tino kaha rawa atu i mahi i te Hollywood.
He nui tekau tau i noho ai rāua ko Chaplin hai hoa ngātahi i roto i te kamupene.
E whakapuakina ana kua hapū a ia i te Moore i te 1910 o mua, ā, he materoto, he whakatahe rānei.
He maha ngā tau i noho tahi ai te tokorua.
I tēnei wā, i pāngia hoki a Pickford i te rewharewha i te taiā o te rewharewha o te 1918.
I haere ratau ki a Europi mo ta raua honi; nga kaiwhaiwhai i te London me te Paris i puta ai nga tutu ki te whai ki te tokorua rongonui.
Ka haere tonu a Pickford ki te whakatinana i te kōtiro pono, engari he muramura i te taha o te tatau.
Ko ngā Ūpoko o ngā Whenua o te Ao, me ngā rangatira e haere toro ana ki te White House ki te pātai mena ka taea hoki e rātou te toro atu ki Pickfair, te Wharekarakia o te tokorua, kei Beverly Hills.
Ko etahi atu manuhiri ko George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, HG Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler, Amelia Earhart, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Noël Coward, Max Reinhardt, Baron Nishi, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sir Arthur Conan Ko Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, Sir Harry Lauder, me Meher Baba, me etahi atu.
I rite tonu hoki te whakaaturanga i a rātou hei karere manakore a Amerika ki te ao, ki nga whakataetae whakatere, ki te tapahi rīpene, me te mahi whaikōrero.
I wehe raua i te Hanuere 10, 1936.
I whakawāwātia e ia o rātau ngoikoretanga ōkiko, tae atu ki te iti rawa o te Ronnie me nga niho kopikopiko e Roxanne.
Ko ona teina, a Lottie raua ko Jack, i mate i nga mate paitini i te tau 1936 me te 1933.
I maunu a Pickford a ka huri haere hei tuuru, noho tata ana ki Pickfair ka tukuna noa nga haerenga mai i a Lillian Gish, tana tama tuarua a Douglas Fairbanks Jr., me etahi atu taangata.
I puta ia ki mua i te kooti i te tau 1959, mo tetahi take e pa ana ki a ia mo te mana rangatira o te teihana pouaka whakaata o North Carolina WSJS-TV.
Charles "Buddy" "He maha nga haerenga a Rogers ki nga manuhiri ki Pickfair, tae atu ki nga tirohanga o te pa mauru o te hauauru i hokona e Pickford mo Douglas Fairbanks, me tetahi whakaahua o Pickford i te ruuma tuhi."
He whare anō tōna i Torōnto, i Ontario, i Canada.
Ko ona tapuwae me ona tapuwae e whakaatuhia ana i te Grauman's Chinese Theatre i Hollywood, California.
Ko te Mary Pickford Theater kei te James Madison Memorial Building o te Library o te Congress kua whakaingoatia hei honore mona.
Ko te whare pikitia tuatahi i Cathedral City, California e kiia ana ko The Mary Pickford Theatre, i whakatuhia i te Mei 25, 2001.
Kei roto i era ko tetahi koti heare he kaakahu i tona kaakahu i te kiriata Dorothy Vernon o Haddon Hall (1924) na Mitchell Leisen, na Oscar motuhake, me te pouaka whakapaipai.
I whakamutua te kāinga o te whānau i 1943, a, he nui nga pereki i tukuna ki Pickford i California.
I te tau 1993, Golden Palm Star i runga i te Palm Spring Walk of Stars i whakatapua ki a ia.
Mai i te Hanuere 2011 tae atu ki te Hōngongoi 2011, i whakaatuhia e te Riipene Kiriata o Toronto tetahi kohinga o nga whakamaharatanga a Mary Pickford i te Whare Kiriata o Kanata o te whare TIFF Bell LightBox.
I hōmai ki te Keene State College, ā, kei te whakaora anōtia e te Library o Congress mō te whakaaturanga.
Ko te Google Doodle o Paenga-whāwhā 8, 2017 te whakanui i te huritau 125 o Mary Pickford.
Gloria Josephine May Swanson (27 o Poutāpeta 1899 – 4 o Āperira, 1983) he kaiwhakaari a American, kaiwhakanao, he kaipāngarau.
Ko tana kotiro kura ki te kaiwhakaari o Essanay Studios a Francis X. Bushman i arahi ki tana whaea keke i a ia ki te haere ki te taiwhanga o Chicago o te kaiwhakaari.
I riro i a ia te whakaingoatanga tuarua o te Whakawhiwhinga Matua o te Whitiāhua oro i te tau 1929 The Trespasser.
Ko tōna pāpā he Amerikana Huiteni, a, ko tōna whaea no nga tākupu Tiamana, Wīwī, pōngia hoki.
I roto i tērā putanga, ka wawe tonu tana utu hei utu tāpiri.
Ko tana mahi tuatahi he hikoi poto me te Kaitapere wahine Gerda Holmes, he utu nui (i era ra) $ 3.25.
I te tau 1915, i wheturangitia ia i Sweedie Haere ki te Kareti me tana tane tuatahi ko Wallace Beery.
I whakaaturia e Vernon rāua ko Swanson i tētahi matuhi mata tino pai, i tau pai ki te minenga.
I tino mīharo a Swanson a Badger ki te tūtohu i a ia ki te kaiwhakahaere ko Jack Koe mō tana Whakatauanga, ā, Kāore e taea e koe te Whakapono ki ngā mea katoa i te tau 1918.
1920), Kātahi anō ka whai ake tētahi mea hei Whakaaro Mō (1920), me te The Affairs of Anatol (1921).
I wheturangihia ia i te tau 1921 mo tana whakaaturanga i The Four Horsemen o te Apocalypse, engari i mohio a Swanson ki a ia mai i ona ra hei kaiwhakaari whaiwhai i nga waahanga iti, kaore he tumanako mo tana ngaiotanga a muri ake nei.
I whakaaetia te whakaahuatanga mo te wā tuatahi i te nuinga o nga pae hītori e pā ana ki Napoleon.
I taua wā, i whakaarotia ko Swanson te whetū tino moni o tōna wā.
He aituā te whakanaotanga, na te pōhara nei a Parker, ā, kaore i nui te pānga ki nga kaitapere hai tuku i nga whakakitenga e hiahiatia ana e ia.
I whai nga mema i te huarahi ka whai ake ma te rehita i a raatau me Will H. Hays, Tiamana o nga Kaihanga Pikitia mo te Motion me nga Kaitoi o America.
He heke nga tarutaru mo te pūrākau taketake, engari he take motuhake tāna i mahi i mua i te putanga o te pikitia.
I tono a ia kia whakanuku i tōna pikitia panuku, a, ka whakamātautau mōhiotia ōna pūkete pūtea.
Heoi, i tohutohu a Kennedy ki a ia kia utua e ia a Erich von Stroheim ki te whakahaere i tetahi atu kiriata puku, The Swamp, i muri iho ka whakahuihui ia Queen Kelly.
He maha nga marama i mahi ai a Stroheim ki te tuhituhi i te hōtuhi taketake.
I katia te tākaro i a Hānuere, a, ka panaia a Stroheim, i muri i nga amuamu a Hākinono mōna, a, mo te ahunga nui i mau ai te pikitia.
Ko te kaiwhakauru hara i te tau 1929 he tino hanga, a i whakawhiwhia e Swanson tana ingoa tuarua mo Oscar.
I tū te whakaaturanga tuatahi o te ao ki London, te whanaunga oro tuatahi o American hai mahi pērā.
Ko te Māramatanga Tōtika, he kōrero whakaahua whakaputa oro 1933, te pikitia kotahi anake i hangaia e tēnei kamupene.
Ka tīmata a ia ki te puta mai i ngā whakaputanga atamira, me te whetū ki te The Gloria Swanson Hour i WPIX-TV i te tau kotahi mano e 1948.
Ka whai te pūrākau o te whitiāhua i tētahi kaiwhakaari whitiāhua hūrū, o Noma Rāwāhi (Angona), i runga i te aroha ki tētahi kaituhituhi rahua, o Joe Gillis (William Holden).
E purei ana a Waru i tētahi tākaro piriti kāri me tētahi rōpū kaitapere e mōhiotia ana hoki ko "te Waxworks."
E Norma nga moemoeā o tētahi whanaketanga ka kōarotia, a, ki te whakamātau te Gillis ki te kōaro i a ia, ka whakamanamana ia ki te whakamate i a ia, engari ka patua ia.
Ahakoa i whakaritea e Swanson tētahi whakamātautau mata mō te pikitia, tino hari ana a ia ki te nui ake i te moni i tōna nohonga i te pouaka whakaata me te atamira.
I muri ka manaaki a Swanson i te Whare Tapere o te Karauna me Gloria Swanson, he raupapa pakiwaitara pouaka whakaata i mahi ai ia i ētahi wā.
Ko ia te manuhiri huna"" i Runga i Taku Raina."
He ahua rongonui ia i roto i te wahanga o The Beverly Hillbillies i te tau 1966, ko ia ano te takaro.
Na te kaitapere me te kaituhi pūrākau ko Horald J. Kennedy, nāna i ako i ngā taura i Nau mai i Te Rūnanga Taonga Urangi, me Orson Wells' Mercury Theatre, i huatau kia haereere a Kirorangi ki "Reflected Glory,", he kōrero i runga i te wāhanga Haerīro me Tallulah Bankhead hei whetū māna."
I muri i tana angitu me Sunset Boulevard, i wheturangitia ia i Broadway i te whakaoranga o te Rau Tau Rua me José Ferrer, me Nina me David Niven.
I te wā o te Pākehātanga ka tautokona e ia nga whakahau ā-perehitini 1940 me te 1944 mō te perehitini o Wendell Willkie me te tohutohu perehitini o Barry Goldwater i te tau 1964.
I te mau rongoā ki a ia e Beery, e huatau ana hei mate mo te ata, ka haukotia e ia nga hua, a, ka mauria ki te hōhipera.
I te tau 1923, ka tangohia e ia a Sonny Smith, 1-tau te pakeke, i tapaina e ia ko Joseph Patrick Swanson ki muri i te ingoa o tona papa.
I whanau tana tamaiti i mua i te mutunga o tana whakarerenga i a Somborn, he āhuatanga tērā pea i puta ai ki tētahi taonga iwi whānui, a, tērā pea ka mutu tana mahi pikitia.
I te mutunga o te raruraru mō te whā marama i tana whakatahe, ka hoki rātau ki Te Hononga o United States hei māharaharatanga o European.
I noho ia hei kaiwhakahaere whitiāhua e tohu ana i Pathé (USA) i France.
I whakaahuatia e Swanson he ngākau tāpiripiri hinengaro", tētahi tangata whai whakamate ki te mahi i ngā mahi, ā, nāna i whai i ēnei whakaaro kia huri i aua whakaaro kia pono."
I tūtaki tonu rātau i te Paris i te whakatikatikatanga o Swanson e CocoPaketa mō tana kiriata o te tau 1931 i te Pō nei, Kore rawa rānei.
I whakaaro ētahi o ōna hoa kai te hē ōna hoa ki a ia.
I te tīmatanga i whakaaro a Angona ka taea e ia te moe atu i te mahi, engari i raruraru te mārena e te waiwaihā a Davey mai i te tīmatanga.
Ko ia te kaituhi wairua o te kōrero o Billie Hararei Lady Sings the Blues, te kaituhi o Sugar Blues, he pukapuka hauora tino hokohoko 1975 e tā tonu ana, ā, ko te kaituhi o te putanga Ingarihi o Georges Ohsawa o You All Sanpaku.
I mohio tuatahi a Swanson me tana tane ki a John Lennon raua ko Yoko Ono na te mea he kaiwhaiwhai raua i nga mahi a Dufty.
I tahuna a ia ki te ahi ka mura ana pungarehu ki te Episcopal Church o te Rangi okioki i te Fifth Avenue i New York City, he iti noa te whanau.
I roto i te 1974, ko Swanson tētahi o nga tohu o te Hākari Kiriata Telluride tuatahi.
Na te ahua erotic o ana whakaaturanga, i whakaitihia nga kiriata a Nielsen i te United States, ana ko ana mahi e noho pouri tonu ana ki te hunga whakarongo o American.
He maha nga wā i neke ai te whānau o Nielsen i tōna tamarikitanga i te wā e rapu ana tana pāpā i te mahi.
Tekau mā whā nga tau i mate ai te matua o Nerara.
I te tau 1901, ka hapu a Nielsen, 21 ona tau, ka whanau he kotiro, ko Jesta.
I puta a Nielsen mai i te Kura Whakaari i te tau 1902.
I kitea te kāhua mahi mōkito a Nielsen i roto i tōna whakaahuatanga angitu o tētahi taitama nanakia i whakawaia ki roto i tētahi oranga kino.
Ka mārena rāua ko Kārara, kātahi ka mahia tahitia e whā anō nga rīpene.
I kitea e au kua hipa atu te pakeke o te whitiāhua poto.
Ko nga hokonga kiriata aowhānui nāna i whakarato nga whitiāhua Nielsen o Ingarangi i ia tau.
"I whakamahia e au ngā tikanga katoa e wātea ana - ā, he maha ngā mea hou i whakatakotohia - hei mau mai i ngā kiriata Asta Nielsen ki te ao.""
I roto i te pooti rongonui a Ruhia o 1911, i pootihia a Nielsen hei whetu kiriata wahine nui o te ao, i muri o Linder me mua o tana taangata no Denmark a Valdemar Psilander.
I te tau 1921, i puta a Nielsen, na tana ake kamupene tohatoha kiriata o Asta Films, ki te Svend Gade me Heinz Schall te kaiwhakahaere a Hamlet.
Heoi anō, ko ngā mahi ā-tohunga pēnei i te pukapuka whakaahua māori i whakaputaina e Austria Filmarchiv i te tau 2010 kaua e whakamōhio i tēnei pikitia.
I mahi a ia i ngā whitiāhua Tiamana tae noa ki te tīmatanga o nga whitiāhua oro.
I muri iho, ka mahi a Nilsen i runga i te atamira anake.
I te mōhiotanga ki nga pānga, ka whakapeka a Nielsen, a, ka mahue i a Tiamana i te tau kotahi mano e 1936.
I wehe raua i te 1919 ka marena a Nielsen ki te kaihanga kaipuke Sweden a Freddy Windgårdh.
I tīmataria e rātou he ture mārena tauroto e mau ana mai i te 1923 ki te 1930 o nga tau.
Ko Fred Astaire (i whanau a Frederick Austerlitz; Mei 10, 1899 - Hune 22, 1987) he kaikanikani no American, he kaiwhakaari, he kaiwaiata, he kaiwhakatangitangi waiata, me te kaiwhakaata pouaka whakaata.
I whetū ia i ngā pūoro nui ake i te 10 o Broadway me West End, e 31 ngā rīpene whakatangitangi, e whā ngā whakakitenga pouaka whakaata, me nga hopukanga maha.
Ko te whaea o Astaire i whanau i te US ki nga manene Lutheran Tiamana mai i East Prussia me Alsace.
Fritz e rapu ana i te mahi i roto i te hokohoko a te pēke, a, ka neke atu ki Omaha Nebraska, i reira ia i mahi ai i te Kamupene a Nga Gifts.
I whakaritea e Johanna he mahi" tāne me te tuahine", he mea pūnoa i waenganui i taua wā, mo ana tamariki tokorua."
Ka tīmata rātau ki te whakangungu i te Kura Matua o Alviene o te Whare Pikitia me te Wānanga o nga Toi Ahurea.
I whakaakona rātau ki te kanikani, ki te kōrero, ki te waiata hei whakarite mo te whakawhānui i te mahi.
I roto i tetahi uiui, i kite te tamahine a Astaire, a Ava Astaire McKenzie, i te nuinga o te wa ka tukuna e ratau a Fred ki te potae o runga kia teitei ake ai tona ahua.
Na te hua o te mahi hokohoko a to rātau pāpā, ka whakatūria e Fred rāua ko Adele tētahi kānataraki nui, a, ka whakatangi i te Ararere Opou i te Hihi o Hihi, ki te Uru me ētahi o ngā tāone ki te Tonga o Amerika.
I te 1912, ka noho a Fred hei Episcopalian.
Mai i te kaikanikani vaudeville a Aurelio Coccia, i akohia e ratou te tango, te waltz, me etahi atu kanikani poipoi e rongonui ana a Vernon me Irene Castle.
I tūtaki tuatahi ia ki a George Gershwin, e mahi ana hei monokia waiata mō te kamupene tānga pūoro a Jerome H. Remick, i te tau kotahi mano 1916.
"I a rātau mahi i te The Passing Show of 1918, i tuhituhi ai a Heiwood Broun: ""I te ahiahi he nui te kanikani pai, Fred Astaire i puta mai ... Nāna rāua ko tōna hoa, o Adele Astaire , i whakaroaroa te whakaaturanga i te ahiahi i te ahiahi, he kanikani ātaahua tātāwhi.""
A, no tēnei wā, ka tīmata te mōhio kanikani Astaire ki te ātete i te tuahine o tōna tuakana.
Astaire's nga kanikani kōata i mohio ki taua waa hai waenga i te tino pai.
I muri i te katinga o te Kanohi Rerekē, ka haere te Astaires ki Hollywood mō tētahi whakamātautau mata (ināianei kua ngaro) ki Ngā Pikitia Ariki, engari i whakaarotia e te Ariki kāore i te tika mō ngā pikitia.
He tūkino te mutunga o te mahinga mo te Astaire engari i whakahauhautia ia ki te whakawhānui i tana awhe.
Nā rāua i tono i a ia mo ētahi rā ki MGM i te tau 1933 mō tōna tīmatatanga hira ki Hollywood i roto i te pikitia waiata angitu Dancing Lady.
I tuhia e ia tana māngai, Kāore au i te pai ki te hanga pikitia anō ki a ia, engari mō tēnei ariā 'tīma', kua 'waho!'"
I āwhina te mahi, me te mahi kore āhua o te Astaire me Hermes Pan, ki te hanga i te kanikani he huānga hira o te pūoro pikitia Hollywood.
Ko te ono o nga whakatangitangi e iwa Astaire–Rogers hei kaihoko moni nui mo RKO; I mauria mai e nga kiriata katoa tētahi mana me tētahi tohunga rehetoi, e hiahiatia ana e nga studios katoa i taua wā.
Nā tēnei i puta ai te whakaaro pūngao o tētahi kāmera taupua tata ki te whakaata i te katoa o te kanikani i roto i te pūata kotahi.
Na te Astaire's kāhua o nga raupapa kanikani i āhei ai te kaitirotiro ki te whai i nga kaikanikani me te mahi tuhi ā-rātou katoa.
Astaire's ko te mahi hou tuarua i pā ki te horopaki o te kanikani; I pūmau a ia kia tau tōpu katoa nga mahi waiata me nga mahi kanikani ki nga rārangi whakairo o te pikitia.
He mahinga takitahi tētahi mā te Astaire, i kīia e ia tōna tākainga kotahi.""
Ki о̄ku whakaaro ko Ginger Roger....
He tino kino tana mahi kino.
I te tau kotahi mano e iwa rau e 1976, i pātai mai te kaihautū kōrero o Ingarangi ki a Tā Michael Parkinson, Astaire ko wai tōna hoa kanikani makau i te Parkinson.
Ahakoa to rātau angitu, kaore te Astaire i whakaae kia here motuhake tana mahi ki tētahi hoa mahi.
Puta noa i tēnei wā, ka noho tonu te Astaire ki te whakamana i te tāurutanga o nga kaimahi kōrero.
I wheturangitia ratou ki Broadway Melody o te 1940, i roto i a raatau whakaari i te mahinga kanikani whanui ki a Cole Porter "Timata i te Tika." ""
I tākaro a ia i te taha o Bing Pakihi i Holiday Inn (1942) me te Blue Skies (1946).
Ko te kiriata whakamutunga e pā ana ki a ia Puttin' On the Ritz", he waiata me te kanikani auaha e pāhono ana ki a ia."
Ko te kiriata tuatahi, You'll Never Get Rich (1941), i hopu a Hayworth ki te stardom.
I whakaatuhia he taarua ki te waiata "I'm Old Fashioned," a Kern i noho hei pokapū o te whakanui a Jerome Robbins o New York City Ballet i te tau 1983 ki a Astaire.
Astaire anake te whakakōrero i tēnei pikitia, a, i tutuki te angitu o te tari pouaka.
Na te moemoea o Yolanda me te Tāhae (1945) i whakaatu mai i tētahi kanikani rangirua moemoeā.
I ngā wā katoa ka tīmata te haumaru kore me te whakapono kua tīmata te tīmatanga o tana mahi, Astaire i whakamīharo ana i ana hunga whakarongo mā te pānui i tōna whakatānga i te wā o tana whitiāhua panuku Blue Skies (1946).
I whakaahua ake ēnei kiriata e rua kia Astaire's te rongonui, a, i te 1950 ka whetū ia i roto i nga whakatangitangi e rua.
Ahakoa i tino pai te mahi a Three Little Words ki te box office, ko Let's Dance i raru i te pūtea.
Engari na te nui o tana utu, i kore ai e whai hua i tana putanga tuatahi.
Kātahi ka mate tana wahine ko Phyllis, a, ohorere ana te mate i roto i te mate pūkaha.
Daddy Long Legs anake te pai o te mahi i te tari pouaka.
Waihoki, Astaire's tērā atu kaupapa - ko tana pūoro whakamutunga i MAHINGA, i te Hiraka Stockings (1957), i reira i whai wāhi tahi ai ia ki Cyd Charisse, i ngaro hoki te moni i te tari pouaka.
"Ko te tuatahi o ēnei papatono, ko te Ahiahi o te tau 1958 me Pātata Astaire, i toa i te iwa Emmy Awards, tae atu ki ""Te Mahinga Takitahi Tino Pai a te Kaitapere"" me ""Te Papatono Takitahi Tino Tūmataiti o te Tau.""
He ngāngū kino te kōwhiringa nā te mea he tokomaha i whakapono ki ana kanikani i roto i te motuhake, ehara i te momo "mahi" i hangaia ai te whakawhiwhinga.
I whakaoratia e rātou te rīpene ataata taketake, mā te whakawhiti i ngā ihirangi ki tētahi hōputu hōu me te whakakī i ngā āputa i heke iho ai te rīpene ki ngā raraunga kinescope.
I puta mai te Astaire i roto i ngā tūnga kore kanikani i roto i ērā atu whitiāhua e toru me ētahi atu rangatū pouaka whakaata mai i te 1957 ki te 1969.
Astaire's te hoa kanikani, ko Petula Clark, i whakatangi i te tamāhine rangirua o tōna āhua.
I mahi tonu a Astaire i nga tau 1970.
I te whakahiatotanga tuarua, e whitu tekau mā ono tekau mā ono, ka mahia e ia he kanikani poto e hono ana i nga raupapa ki a Kelly, i ana whakakitenga kanikani whakamutunga i roto i tētahi pikitia whakatangitangi.
I te tau 1978, i whiwhi tahi ia ki a Helen Hayes i roto i tētahi pikitia pouaka whakaata i whiwhi rātau A Family Upside Down, i tākaro ai rāua i tētahi tokorua pakeke e pā ana ki te hauoratanga.
Astaire ka tonoa e tōna māngai kia whiwhi tūranga māna i runga i te Galactica nā te manako o ana mokopuna i roto i te rangatū, ā, ka hari ngā kaitiaki ki te hanga i tētahi wāhanga katoa hei āhua i a ia.
I roa i muri i te whakaahua mo te tau kanikani takitahi "I Want to Be a Dancin 'Man" "i oti mo te whakaaturanga 1952 Ko te Belle o New York, i whakatauhia ko te koroka haehaa o Astaire me te waahanga o te waahanga whatu kaare i tika. Katoa te raupaputanga i whakahou. "
Tāpare mō te tāpare, he ōrite ngā mahinga e rua, whakararo ki te tohu ā-ringa tohuāki.
He momo kanikani ahurei a ia i tino awe i te momo kanikani American Ball Smooth mo te kanikani poipoi me te whakarite i nga paerewa hei whakawa i nga puoro kanikani kiriata o muri mai.
Ka tuhipokatia e ia Astaire's kāhua kanikani, i rite tonu ki ngā rīpene whai muri i hangaia, kāore rānei te āwhina a Pan.
Heoi anō, i rite tonu tēnei ki te wāhi o ngā raupapa wae whānui, he whakaari rānei".
"I muri mai i tōna oranga, ka whakaae a ia, ""Me tino mahi ahau i te nuinga o taua mea.""
He maha nga mahinga kanikani i hangaia huri noa i te gimmick, "" peera i te kanikani i runga i nga pakitara i te Royal Wedding, i te kanikani ranei me ona atarangi i te waa piu. "
Ka mahi rātau me tētahi pūrei whakatangitangi (i te nuinga o te wā ka kōrerotia e te kaitito Hal Borne) ka whakawhiti kōrero whakarerekē i ngā whakarerekētanga ki nga kaiwhakawhanake pūoro.
Na te otinga katoa o te whakaritenga, ka tere te haere o te whakatata tonu, ka raruraru nga utu.
"E kore tonu ia e haere ki te kite i ōna oma... E whakaaro ana a ia i ngā wā katoa ehara a ia i te pai.""
I kitea e Mikaera Kidd, te koreohoo ā-hoa o Araka i runga i te pikitia The Band Wagon o te tau 1953, ko tōna ake māharahara mō te whakahauhau ā-ā-roto i muri i te kanikani, kāore i tiria e te Astaire.
Me tāpiri tātou i ngā āhuatanga ā muri ake.' "
I whakaarohia e Irving Berlin ko Astaire te rite ki nga kaiwhakamaori tane katoa o ana waiata - "he pai ki a Jolson, Crosby, Sinatra ranei, ehara na te kaha o tana reo, engari mo tana whakaaro ki te whakaputa waiata."
I tana wa angitu, i whakahuahia a Astaire ki nga kupu a nga kaitito waiata a Cole Porter, a Lorenz Hart me a Eric Maschwitz, a kei te whakahihiko tonu i nga kaitito waiata hou.
I te tau o te tau kotahi mano 1952, ka whakapūketetia e Astaire te Pūrākau The Astaire, he pukaemi rōrahi whā me tētahi kuroto e Oscar Peterson.
Ka tīmata a Bogart ki te mahi i ngā whakakitenga Whakapiopio, i te tīmatanga o tana mahi i ngā pikitia nekeneke me Up the River (1930) mō Fox, ā, i puta mai ki nga tūranga tautoko mo te tekau tau e whai ake nei, i ētahi wā e whakaahua ana i ngā kaiwhainga.
Ko nga kaitirotiro motuhake a Bogart, a Sam Spade (i roto i te The Maltese Falcon) me Phillip Marlowe (i te 1946's The Big Sleep), i noho hei tauira mo nga kaitirotiro i etahi atu kiriata noir.
I muri noa iho i te whakaahua matua mo te The Big Sleep (1946, ko ta rāua pikitia tuarua), ka whakaputaina e ia he whakarere i tana wahine tuatoru, a, ka moe i a Bacall.
I whakakorea anō e ia aua pūāhua tūroro, tūkino hei rangatira World War II kaipuke moana i Te Caine Mutiny (1954), he taunga nui, he arumoni hoki, ā, i riro i a ia tētahi atu whakaingoa Kaitapere Tino Pai.
Ko te ingoa Bogart"" e puta mai ana i te ingoa whānau Dutch, ""Bogaert"."
He Episcopalian a Maud no te taonga tuku iho o te Reo Ingarihi, a, he uri no te pāhihi o Mayflower, ko John Howland.
Clifford I tuhia e McCarty tēnā Warner Bros. Nā te tari pānuitanga i huri ki te 23 o Hānuere 1900 " ki te whāngai i te tirohanga kāore i tino tika he tinihanga tētahi tangata i whānau mai i te Rā Kirihimete i a ia e āhua nei kei runga i te mata."
I tuhia e Lauren Bacall i roto i tana korero mo te ra whanau o Bogart i nga wa katoa ka whakanuihia te ra whanau o te Kirihimete, me tana kii he katakata ia mo te tinihanga i tetahi koha ia tau.
He kaiwhakaahua arumoni a Maud nāna i whiwhi ōna whakaakoranga toi i New York me France, tae atu ki te akoranga me te James Abbott McNeill Whistler.
Neke atu i te $50,000 tekau tāra i te tau i te tihi o tana mahi – he tino nui rawa te moni i taua wā, ā, he tino nui atu i te $20,000 o tana tāne.
Tokorua ana tuahine taitamariki: ko Frances (Pat") me Catherine Elizabeth ("Kay")."
He takahanga te kihi, i roto i to mātau whānau.
I riro i a ia te āhua o te ngira, te manakohanga mo te hī ika, te aroha o te poti, me te ātaahua ki nga wahine manawanawa o tona papa.
I uru a Bogart ki muri ki te Whare Wananga o Phillips, he kura whakauru i uru ai ia ki runga i nga hononga a whanau.
He maha ngā take kua tukuna; e ai ki tētahi, i peia ia mо̄ te panga o te tumuaki (he kaitiaki papa whenua ranei) ki roto i te Puna Rāpeti o te kura.
Kātahi a ia ka tono mō te Rāhui Rangitahi o te Pare Tairāwhiti i te tau kotahi o te 1944, e whakahaere ana i te takutai o California i tōna tīwai, i Santana.
Kotahi anō, i tapahia tana ngutu e te matā, i te wā i whiua tana kaipuke (te ).
I a ia e whakarerekē ana i nga tereina i Boston, i whakaritea e te herehere kua whakaritea kia pātai pouaka ki a Bogart mo te hikareti.
Tae noa ki te wā i whakaahuatia e te tākuta a Bogart, i hangaia he mīti.
"Kāhore a ia i tuitui i taua mea, i takakinotia e ia.""
I roto i ōna rā moana, ka tīmata te whakakeke i tōna āhuatanga me nga uara i tōna whānau.
I whakakao ano a Bogart ki a Bill Brady Jr (he hononga pakihi-whakaatu tana papa), ana ka whakawhiwhia ia ki te tari me te kamupene hou a Filemu o te Ao o William A. Brady.
I tīmataria e ia tana wāhanga i ētahi marama ā muri ake nei he kaitiaki utu Hapanihi i te whakatangi pāpāhotanga mātāmua o te Alice's 1921 i te Drifting (e whakawhiti ana i te rārangi kōrero kotahi), ā, i puta mai i ētahi o ana whakatangitangi o muri mai.
I tēnei wā ko te manioro mo te moana i tēnei wā, he take āhua hiahia kia Bogart's te tūkino ngutu, me te kukupa me te kaute Louise Brooks'.
I kino a Bogart ki ōna wāhanga mātauranga tōmua, e kī ana i a rātou ko ngā tūnga White Pants Willie"" ki a rātau."
I kī a Menken i roto i tana whakakōnae whakarerenga, i whakanuia e Bogart tana mahi, neke atu i te mārena, e kī ana i te arotahi me te tūkino.
I reira ka tūtaki ia ki tētahi kaiwhakaari toko Spencer Tracy, he kaiwhakaari e Broadway i pai, i whakamīharotia rātau, a, ka noho he hoa ngākau tata rāua, he hoa inu hoki.
I whiwhi nama runga a Pire, engari i puta a Bogart ki runga i nga poutaka o te pikitia.
I te koata o te rau tau, ka whakaaro nga tāngata tokorua ki te whakaemi tahi i nga Haora Whakahaurangi.
Bogart ka rere whakamuri ki waenganui i a Hollywood me te wāhanga New York mai i te 1930 ki te 1935, kua pau te mahi mō ngā wā roa.
Ahakoa ko Leslie Howard te whetu, ko te kaikorero o The New York Times a Brooks Atkinson i kii ko te takaro "he peach ... he melodrama o te Hauauru e haruru ana ... Ko Humphrey Bogart te mahi tino pai rawa atu o tana mahi kaiwhakaari." "
I hokona e Warner Bros. nga mana tika ki te Forest Petrified i te 1935.
Ko Howard, nana i pupuri nga mana whakangao, i kii marama e hiahia ana ia kia wheturangitia a Bogart ki a ia.
Ina Warner Bros. ka kite kaore a Haurangi e mau tonu, ka hoatu, ka maka i a Bogart.
E ai ki te Momo, kāore he hiahia a te paratau a Bogart"."
Tērā pea he āhuatanga i roto i tōku reo, tēnei kanohi whakakake rānei— he mea e whakaiti ana i te katoa.
Ahakoa tōna angitu, Warner Bros. Kaore i hiahia a ki te whakapiki i te kōtaha o Bogart.
I whakamahia e te Bogart ēnei tau ki te tīmata ki te whakawhanake i tōna hāngai kiriata: he tūpono motu, whakarihariha, māhorahora, mōrearea, māmā ana, māmā ana ki te hunga whakahīhī i a ia anō me te waehere o te honore.
Ko ana tautohetohe ki te Warner Bros. he rite tonu te mahinga me te moni ki ērā i utuhia e te whare taupuni me ngā whetū tū nui ake, iti iho hoki ngā whetū māhorahora pēnei i te Bette Davis me teJames Cagney.
Ko tana mahi anake i roto i tenei wa ko te Whakamutunga (1937, i whakawhiwhia ki a Samuel Goldwyn), he kaimana i whakatauira i muri i a Baby Face Nelson.
In Black Legion (1937), ko tētahi whitiāhua Graham Greene i whakaahuatia he mātauranga, mātauranga hoki, mēnā ka nui kē", i tākaro ia i tētahi tangata pai i mauria (ā, i whakangaromia e) tētahi whakahaere kaitāriri."
"Ko te raru nui, i inu rātou i āku, ā, ko au te kaituhi o te kiriata.""
I te 21 o Awatea 1938, ka uru a Bogart ki te mārena tuatoru ki te kaiwhakaari o Mayo Methot, he wahine ngāwari, he hoahoa, ina whakaaro nui, he pōrearea, he pākaha hoki i te inu.
Ka whakatūria e ia to rātau whare ki te ahi, nāna i oka ki te naihi, a, he maha nga wā i tapahi ai ōna ringa.
E ai ki to rātau hoa, ko Julius Epstein, "Ko te mārena i Bogart-Methot te whainga o te Civil War."
Heoi anō, ka nui haere te whakararurarutanga o te āhuatanga Methot's, ā, ka inu tonu anō a Bogart.
No tana whakaaro i mahi ai he kaitapere, he kaiwhakahaere, he papa rūma rānei, ka kōrero whānuitia e ia.
Ko Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney me Robinson i whakakore i te mahi rangatira, i whai waahi ai a Bogart ki te whakaari i tetahi kiripuaki me te hohonu.
I pai tana mahi ki a Ida Lupino, e tīmata ana i te hae i a Mayo Methot.
Ka taea e ia te whakahua i a Plato, Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson me te neke atu i te kotahi mano nga raina o Shakespeare, ka ohauru ki te Harvard Law Review.
I runga anō i te pukapuka Dashiell Hammett, i whakaritea tuatahitia ki te pukapuka turanga Black Mask i te tau 1929, koia hoki te pūtake o ngā putanga whitiāhua tōmua e rua; ko hatana Tūtaki ki te Wahine (1936), e whāki ana ki te Bette Davis.
Kātahi ka manako a Huston ki a Bogart hai Hamu Hāwara mōna.
Ko te kiriata, na Michael Curtiz i whakahaere, na Hal Wallis i hanga, ko Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre me Dooley Wilson.
Bogart e pūrongotia ana kua whakaaetia ki te whakaaro e tika ana kia whakaahuatia te Rick Blaine hei kaipurei kīngi, he kupu whakarite mo ngā pātahitanga i pupuritia e ia ki ngā hoa, ki ngā hoariri, me ngā pirihitini.
I whakaingoatia te Bogart mō te Kaitapere Tino Pai i tētahi Tūranga, engari i ngaro ki te Paul Lukas mō tana mahinga i Watch on the Rhine.
I haere a Bogart ki ngā whakatere hāereere o te United Service Organizations and War Bond me Methot i te tau 1943 me te 1944, i te haerenga pakeke ki Itari rāua ko North Africa (tae atu ki Apakia).
"I to rāua tūtakinga, e 19 ana a Bacall me Bogart 44; I karangatia ia e ia ""Baby.""
Ka tino ngahau tātau."
Ko ahau me Ētahi, ko HarperCollins, Ko New York, 2005.
I whakaarohia e ia te kaitiaki me te kaitiaki o Bacall, a, i whakahauhautia taua tūranga e Bogart.
"Waihoki, he āhua ngākau whakaahua tōna kei roto tēnā ngāwari o te whakarihariha.""
Ko te kōrero, i roto i ngā tirohanga i tāpiritia mai e Hawks, kī tonu i te tūturu ā-tōna wā, ā, he rongoā tūmataiti a Bogart ki a Philip Marlowe.
He tino harakoa te mārena, a, na o rāua rerekētanga.
E ai ki te kaipāhuaho o Bogart, a Stefan Kanfer, he rerenga kiriata whakanao kāore ōna rerekētanga".
Kāore he painga aroha, he whakamutunga hari rānei, i whakaarotia he kaupapa mōrearea.
"I tuhituhi a James Agee, ""Mahi ana te Bogart i tētahi mahi tino pai me tēnei pūāhua ... he maero i mua i te mahi tino pai i mahia e ia i mua.""
I puta mai a Bogart i ana pikitia whakamutunga mō Warners, Chain Lightning (1950) me Te Enforcer (1951).
E rua hoki nga whitiāhua i hangaia e Hanana ki waho o ia: A, Baby Makes Three (1949) me te The Family Secret (1951).
He tokomaha nga kaipāhua o te karaihe Bogart, me ngā kaituhi-kaititi wahine, o Louise Brooks, kua tino tata tēnei tūranga ki te Bogart tūturu.
Ko te parody o te momo The Maltese Falcon, Beat the Devil te kiriata whakamutunga mo Bogart me John Huston.
Nā te kaingākautanga o Huston ki nga mahi mātātoa, tōna whakahoatanga hōhonu, (pikinga hoki) kia Bogart, me te wā i mahi tahi ai ia kia Hepburn, i whakamīharo i te kaitapere kia mahue i a Hollywood mō tētahi kōtui uaua i te tauwāhi ki Belgian Congo.
I haere mai a Bacall mo te roanga neke atu i te whā marama, a, ka mahue ta rāua tama i Losi Angeles.
"I Hāmārō a ia i ōku pokanga i roto i te pōuriuri o Africa.""
He kino rawa atu te mate o Hepburn (he tietotaler) i roto i nga ahuatanga o te Uaua, ka ngaro te taumaha ana ka mate rawa ia.
Ahakoa te awangawanga o te peke atu i te poti ki nga repo, nga awa me nga repo, Ko te African Queen te ahua o te aroha wawe o Bogart ki nga poti; i tana hokinga ki te California, ka hokona e ia he ruapara Hacker-Craft mahogany tawhito i purihia e ia a mate noa ia.
I te wa i toa a Bogart, heoi, ka kii ia: "He tawhiti mai i te Congo Belgian ki te waahi o tenei whare tapere."
I te toatanga o Bogart, ka kī a ia: He roa atu i te Belgian Congo ki te tūnga o tēnei whare pikitia."
Ahakoa pupuri tonu ia i ētahi o tōna kawa tahito, ahakoa i kaha tana mahinga i te taha; I whiwhi a ia i tana whakaingoatanga Oscar whakamutunga, a, ko ia te kaupapa o tētahi pūrākau uhi whānuitanga o te 7 o June, 1954 wā.
Kāore au e pīrangi ana te mahi tahi ki tēnei momo kaiwhakahaere ... He harore te pikitia.
Ahakoa nga whakararuraru, i angitu te kiriata, e ai ki te arotake o The New York Times, ko Bogart "... te Pūkenga whakapiki whakahihiri i whakakotahihia ai e tenei kaiwhakaari toka nga purotu me nga momo taarua me te Manly Manner of ko te rewa tetahi o nga harikoa kaore e taea te tatau o te whakaaturanga "". "
I whakaāroa a ia ki a Ava Gardner i roto i te wāhine e ārahi ana; Kātahi tonu a ia ka whati ki tana hoa o Rat Pack Frank sinatra, a, a, i riri a Bogart i tana mahinga tōkeke.
No te kitenga o Bacall i a rāua tahi, ka tangohia e ia he hokohoko utu nui i tana tāne; Ka haere tahi te tokotoru i muri i te whakangahau.
I puta mai hoki a ia i te The Jack Benny Show, i reira ka hopukina ia e tētahi kinekopoko ora o te aorangi ora i roto i tana mahinga pakihi tātuhi tuhituhi PW anake (25 o Ōkāpua 1953).
I noho a Stephen hei kaituhi me te koiora me te manaaki i tetahi pouaka whakaata motuhake mo tana papa i te kiriata Turner Classic.
I te oho o Santana, kua hangaia e Bogart tētahi kamupene hou, a, he kaupapa mō tētahi kiriata (Melville Goodwin, U.S.A.) māna ia e whakatangi he āhuwhānui, ā, ko Bacall he āhua o te pēhi.
Kaore a ia i kōrero mo tōna hauora, a, ka toro atu ki tētahi tākuta i te Konuari 1956 i muri iho i te whakaaro nui o te whakaaro o Bacall.
I ahu mai i a ia tētahi atu mōhiohiotanga i a ia i Whiringa 1956, i te wā i kitea ai te mate pukupuku.
"I whakarārangitia ki runga, ""Ki te hiahia koe i tētahi mea, whio.""
I a ia e ako ana me Stella Adler i nga tau 1940, e kiia ana ko ia tetahi o nga kaiwhakaari tuatahi Kawea mai te punaha o Stanislavski Tikanga Whakaoho me te Mahi, i ahu mai i te punaha Stanislavski, ki te hunga whakarongo nui.
Nāna i tohu, i whetū hoki ki te uru whakauru hauāuru o One-Eyed Jacks, he horohoro nui, he arumoni hoki, i muri iho ka hoatu e ia he rārangi rahunga pouaka rongonui, tīmata ana ki te Mutiny on the Bounty (1962).
I whakakāhoretia e ia te whakawhiwhinga, na te tūkinotanga me te mākinitanga a te hunga māori o ngā Kaiāianei o Māori na Hollywood.
E ai ki te Guinness Book of World Records, i whakawhiwhia a Brando ki te $ 3.7 miriona ($ miriona taara kua whakatikangahia te pikinga) me te 11.75% o nga hua nui mo nga mahi 13 ra mo Superman.
Ko tо̄na whakapapa ko Tiamana, Tatimana, Ingarihi, me Airihi.
I whakatūria a Brando he Christian Scientist.
Ahakoa rā, he inu wairangi a ia, a, i te nuinga o te wā ka whakahokia ki te kāinga mai i nga pae i roto i te toko Chicago e tana tāne.
I whāia kētia e Brando he kiriākau ki tōna pāpā, e kī ana, Ko ahau tōna ingoa, engari kāore he mea i pai ai ahau, i ahu mai rānei ki a ia."
I te takiwa o te 1930, ka neke nga maatua o Brando ki Evanston, Illinois, i te wa i haria ai ia e tana mahi papa ki Chicago, engari i wehe ke ia i te 1935 i te 11 o nga tau o Brando.
Brando, ko tōna ingoakāinga tamariki he "Bud, he tāwhai i tōna tamarikitanga."
I te karaihe TCM o te 2007 Brando: Ko te Documentary, te hoa tamariki George Englund e mahara ana i te mahi tuatahi a Brando hei pakoire i ngā kau me ngā hoiho i te pāmu a te whānau hei ara kia nekehia tōna whaea kia kore ai e inu.
Ko te tuahine o Brando a Frances i wehe i te kaareti i California ki te ako i nga mahi toi i New York.
I hira ake a Brando i te whare tapere, ā, i pai te mahi ki te kura.
I pōti te tauwhāinga ki te pana i a ia, ahakoa i tautokona ia e nga tauira, i whakaaro rātau he kaha rawa te pana atu.
I roto i te pakipūmeka 1988, Marlon Brando: The Wild One, te tuahine o Brando a Jocelyn i maumahara, "I roto ia i tetahi taakaro i te kura me te pai ki a ia ... No reira ka whakatau ia ka haere ia ki New York ki te ako i nga mahi whakaari na te mea koinei anake te mea i pai ia. "
Mo tētahi wā i noho ai ia ki a Roy Somlyo, a, i muri iho, e whā te wā i whiwhi ai Emmy i te kaihautū Broadway.
Brando's he mārama te kitenga me te āhuatanga o te whakaaro tūturu i te atatū.
Hei ki a Dustin Hoffman i tana Masterclass aipurangi, he maha nga wa ka korero a Brando ki nga taane kamera me nga hoa whakaari mo a raatau wiki whakataa ahakoa kua karanga te kaiwhakahaere.
Nā tōna whanonga i wāhi ai ia i te kōrero o te whakanaotanga o te Kura Hou i Sayville, engari kātahi anō ka kitea ia i roto i tētahi tākaro paetata i reira.
Na Ka maka ano ia e Kene hei Karere i a ia e whakanao ana i Jean Anouilh's Antigone taua tau.
Kua whakawetongia e te paneke te āhua o te Blanche Dubois i roto i Tētahi Tākaro Tiriti Tapaina ko Desire, i tuhituhi nei a Williams mōna, hei whakatata i te whakatangi mo te tau kotahi rau e whitu rau e waru tekau mā 1946–1947.
Wilson tino manawa ki te whanonga o Brando, engari i tae atu a ia ki tōna tepe i te wā i kōrerorero a Brando i roto i tētahi whakaterenga kākahu i mua i te 28 o Whiringa 1946, i te whakatuwheratanga. "
Tino whakamīharo," ka auporo mai tētahi mema kōrero. "
Heoi anō, kaore nga kaiwhakawāwā i ngāwari.
I whiwhi a ia i ngā arotakenga pai ake i ngā tūnga whakatere o muri mai, engari ko ngā mea i maharatia e ōna hoa mahi, he whakaaturanga ētahi wā noa iho o te tākaro ka whakaaturia e ia ā muri ake. "
Brando i whakaaturia tōna tawhiti mo te whakanaotanga mā te whakaatu i ētahi tikanga mōrearea.
I muri iho i ngā wiki maha i runga i te huarahi, ka tae rātau ki te Boston, nā reira i reri ai te Panerēke ki te ākiri i a ia.
E tuhi ana a Pierpont ko John Garfield te mea tuatahi mo te mahi, engari " kaore e taea te tono."
"E whakawaia ana e ia te āhuatanga o Stanley, i tērā ka noho hei tūkinotanga, he āhuatanga whakatoatoa o te taitamariki, ehara i te koroua kino ... I puta mai tētahi uara hōu i te pānuitanga o Brando, kei taumata ke tēnei pānuitanga.""
Ka mea ia, I piki ake te ārai, i runga i te atamira, ko te tama a te uwha i te whare whakangungu rakau, a kei te tākaro ia i ahau.""
Ko te tūnga mata tuatahi a Brando he tūpāpaku pākākā kino i roto i The Men (1950).
Nā te pūkete a Brando ake, tērā pea nā tēnei pikitia i hurihia ai tōna tūnga hukihuki mai i te 4-F ki te 1-A. Kua whakatūria e ia he mahinga i runga i tana pona tinihanga, a, kua kore tonu e rawaka te whakararurarutanga i te huinga.
Na te mate hinengaro i mōhio te tākuta hoa o Brando.
E whakaarotia ana ko tētahi o ngā mea tino nui a Brando te tūranga.
Na Elia Kazan i whakatakotoria te pikitia, a, ko te whetū tahi ko Anthony Quinn.
I a māua tirohanga tahi, ka rongo ahau i te kawa ki ahau, a, ki te whakaarotia e ahau he inu i muri i te mahi, ka whakaititia ahau e ia, ahakoa iti noa tana kōrero.
I muri iho i te whiwhinga o te raruraru i hiahiatia, kore rawa a Kazan e kī atu ki a Quinn nāna ia i ūkui.
I tino mīharo te tau Gielgud, nāna i tapae i a Brando tētahi wā katoa i te Whare Tapeke, he tono i whakapekatia e ia.
Anō he tatau oumu e tūwhera ana — i puta mai te wera i te mata.
E ai ki nga korero katoa, i pouri a Brando ki te whakatau a tana Kai-Awhina, engari kua mahi tahi ano me ia i runga o te The Waterfront. ""
Kare i aro nui nga kaikawe o Triumph i te whakaaturanga, na te mea ko te keehi o nga roopu motupaika motuka e tango ana i tetahi taone iti.
I te tīmatanga o te pānuitanga o te tūranga, ka tātā tonu a Brando—e te whakaaturanga a Kazan ki a HUAC — kua tata te haere ki a Frank Sinatra, me te wāhanga o te Terry Malloy.
I wikitoria a Brando i te Oscar mo tana mahi hei steveore Irish-Amerika Terry Malloy i te On the Waterfront.
I roto i tana arotake, Hurae 29, 1954, i whakanui te kaikо̄rero o New York Times, a A. H. Weiler, i te kiriata nei, i kii ia "he mana tino nui, he whakaongaonga, me te pohewa o te whakaaturanga e ngā tohunga ngaio." "
I whakaahuatia e ia te Napoleon i te whitiāhua o te tau kotahi rau e 1954, o Désirée.
He tino whakahāwea a Brando ki te tumuaki o Hēnry Koster.
I te hukarere ano te whanaungatanga i waenga i a Brando me te rangatira o Frank Sinatra, i te kitenga o Stefan Kanfer: "He rereke te ahua o nga taane e rua: He maha nga rereketanga i hiahiatia e Marlon; He mea whakarihariha na Frank ki te whakahoki ano i a ia ano." "
Frank Sinatra i karangatia a Brando " te kaitapere tino kaha o te ao, a, i karangatia e ia ko ""ngangau".
Kāore anō a Pauline Kael kia tino mīharo i te whitiāhua, engari i kitea "Marlon I matekai a Brando ki te whakatangi i te kaiwhakamaori ā waipiro o Sakini, āhua nei kai te hākinakina e ia te mahinga pōrangi—kōrero mā te nako pōrangi, mānā, māngere ki mua, me te mahi i ngā nekehanga māminga ki ōna waewae.
I kitea e Aua Tauwhāiti he kōrero pārōkā" o te hui o te tokorua", engari he angitu tonu taua pikitia."
I haere tonu te pikitia ki te toa whā o nga Tohu Wāhanga Matua.
"Na ngā pūkete katoa, i tūkinotia a Brando i tōna matenga, me te kōrero pukapuka o Pita Manso e kōrero ana i te Tāhuahua o A&E, ""Ko ia te tangata e āhei ana ki te tuku whakaae ki a ia pēnei i te kore e taea e tētahi atu, i muri i te matenga o tōna whaea, ā, i te āhua ka mutu te tiaki a Keinā.""
Ko nga Young Lions e whakaatu ana i te ahua kotahi o Brando i roto i te kiriata me te hoa me te hoa whakataetae Montgomery Clift (ahakoa kaore i te whakaatuhia e ratau etahi whakaaturanga).
E whakaatu ana a Brando i te kaiwhakaari matua a Rio, a ko Karl Malden te kaiwhakaari i tana hoa "Papa" "Longworth."
Ko te kore wheako o Brando hei etita i whakaroa i te mahinga pou, ana ka riro ko Paramount te mana whakahaere i te kiriata.
I taua wa, kua hoha ahau ki te kaupapa katoa, ka haere atu ahau i reira. "
Ko te whakakahoretanga o Brando me te umanga kiriata e kii ana kua koropupuhia i te waa o tana kiriata ka whai ake, ko te whakahoutanga o Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer mo te Mutiny on the Bounty, i whakaahuahia i Tahiti.
Ko te Kaiwhakahaere Mutiny a Lewis Milestone i kii ko ngā kaiwhakahaere "e tika ana ngā mea e whiwhi ana rātou mena e hoatu ana i te mana whakahaere ki tētahi kaiwhakaari koretake, me te tamaiti koretake”
Ko te American Weriweri (1963) te tuatahi o ēnei whitiāhua.
I roto i tēnei wā, ko te Pūrākau Ahurangi katoa o Brando (1964), Ko te Appaloosa (1966), ko A Countess from Hong Kong (1967) me Te Po o te Rā e whai ake nei (1969), he hihi nui, he arumoni hoki.
I puta mai anō a Brando i te mātāmuatanga mātakitaki Morituri i te tau kotahi rau e 1965; arā, i rahua ki te whakapakari i te hunga whakaminenga.
I tino miharo a Candy mo te nuinga; he kiriata whakaipoipo taatai 1968 na Christian Marquand i hangai ki te pukapuka a Terry Southern i te 1958, ka whakahiatohia e te kiriata nga korero pakiwaitara na roto i ngā mahi whakamoemiti a tana toa wahine rangatira, a Candy, na Ewa Aulin i whakaari.
I te putanga o Te Aterangi o Mati 1966, ka tuhituhi a Pauline Kael i ōna rā whakakeke, he mahi a Brando " he ahuwhenua nā te mea i mōhio a ia he tinihanga te iwi; He toa a ia ki te tamarikitanga i te mea he kaha rawa a ia ki te kore e tango i te tinihanga, engari ināianei kua riro a Brando me ētahi atu pēnei i a ia ko "ngā "pekīni, me te kōpatapata, i te whakamihi i o rātou rongonui.""
"I tino tūmanawa ahau ki taku whakaaetanga i te taupatupatu, engari i tino tairongo ahau, a, he nui te whara i a au.""
I whiwhi arotakenga ranu te katoa o te pikitia.
I whakatapua e Brando tētahi ūpoko tūturu ki te pikitia i roto i tōna ake pani, e kī ana ko te tumuaki, ko Gillo Pontecorvo, te kaitiaki tino pai rawa i mahi ai a ia i te taha o Kazan me Bernardo Bertolucci.
I te tau 1971, na Michael Winner a ia i arahi i te kiriata whakamataku a Peretana i nga Nightcomers me Stephanie Beacham, Thora Hird, Harry Andrews me Anna Palk.
I whakawhiwhia e ia a Brando ki te Tohu Kino porohita kiriata New York 1972.)
I mahi ano a Brando i nga Jacks Kotahi-Kotahi e mahi ana ki a ia, he mahi raru i ngaro he moni mo Paramount i te wa i tukuna i te 1961.
Na Coppola i whakatau tūturu a Brando ki tētahi whakamātau "make-up" kua oti i a Brando tōna ake whakapaipai (i whakamahia e ia ngā pōro miro hei whakarite i ngā pāpāringa whakapehapeha o te pūāhua).
"I pōhēhē a Brando i a ia anō, e kōrero ana i roto i tōna kōrero mōna, ""Kāore anō ahau kia purei i tētahi Itari i mua, ā, kāore ahau i pērā i tika taku mahi.""
I hainatia a Brando mō tētahi utu iti e $50,000, engari i tana kirimana, ka tukuna ki a ia tētahi ōrautanga o te taonga tāwere i runga i tētahi tauine rēreti: 1% o te taonga nui mō ia $10 miriona i runga i te paepae $10 million, tae atu ki te 5% mēnā i hipa te pikitia i te $60 miriona.
I roto i tētahi uiuitanga o te tau1994 ka kitea i te paetukutuku o te Academy of Achievement, ka tohe a Coppola, He whitiāhua tino kāore i te herea te Pāremata i a mātau e mahia ana."
Kaore rātau i pīrangi ki taku tākarotanga.
I roto i te uiui pouaka whakaata me Larry King i te 2010, i korero ano a Al Pacino mo te awhina o Brando i a ia ki te pupuri i te mahi a Michael Corleone i te kiriata — ahakoa te hiahia o Coppola ki te pana ia.
Ka whati i a ia te hukapapa mā te whakawhānau i te rōpū ki te karaehe waina. '"
"I tāpiri mai a Caan, 'I te rā tuatahi i tūtaki ai mātau i a Brando he mīharo te katoa.'""
"A, no te mea he kaha nui rawa tōna, he mana tinihanga hoki, i whakaaro ahau he tino taumira te tākaro i a ia hei tangata mārire, ehara i a Al Capone, e whiua ana e ia nga tāngata ki te peke pehiperi.""
Kāore rawa he tīmatanga.
I whakapōkaitia e ia te hui whakawhiwhinga, kāore anō ia kia tuku i te kaiwhakaputa motika taketake o Amerika, o Sacheen Littlefeather, i puta mai nei i ngā kakahu Apache katoa, ki te kōrero i ngā take a Brando, i runga anō i tana whakakāhoretanga ki te whakaahuatanga o te hunga Taketake o Amerika i a Karauti me te pouaka whakaata.
Anō ki ngā rīpene o mua, kāore a Brando i whakaae ki te whakamātautau i ōna raina mō ngā tirohanga maha; i tuhia kētia e ia ōna rārangi ki ngā kāri tohu, ā, ka whakairihia ki te tautuhi hei tohutoro māmā, ka waiho a Bertolucci me te raruraru o te tiaki i aua rārangi ki waho o te tāpare pikitia.
Na tana kirimana whai waahi nui e $3 miriona te moni i riro i a ia.
I tuhituhi a Pauline Kael, i roto i te arotakenga a Te New Yorker, "Kātahi anō ka tae mai te huatau whitiāhua.
I te 1973, i pouri a Brando i te matenga o tana hoa pai o te tamarikitanga, a Wally Cox.
Ka ngaro mo te haora tuatahi o te kiriata, ka eke hoiho a Clayton, ka huri whakararo, ka mau ki nga kiri ma, he ahua Littlefeather.
Ko Penn, i whakapono ki te tuku i nga kaiwhakaari ki te mahi i a raatau mahi, i tuku i a Marlon i nga wa katoa. "
I te 1978, ka whakaputaina e Brando te whakaputanga Ingarihi o Raoni, he kiriata pakipaki French-Belgian na Jean-Pierre Dutilleux me Luiz Carlos Saldanha i aro ki te oranga o Raoni Metuktire me nga take e pa ana ki te oranga o nga iwi taketake o Inia o te raki o Brazil.
I te 1979, i kitea e ia he ahua pouaka whakaata onge i te Roopu miniseries: Nga whakatupuranga e whai ake nei, e whakaatu ana i a George Lincoln Rockwell; i wini ia i te Tohu Emmy Primetime mo te Kaitautoko Rongonui i roto i nga Miihiniiti, i tetahi Kiriata ranei mo tana mahi.
I utua a Brando $1 miriona ia wiki mo te 3 wiki mahi.
I roto i te pakipūtanga, ka kōrero a Coppola mo tana mīharotanga i a ia i te hurihanga o Brando uaua ki ana tirohanga, ā, i te kaha o te whakaaro, ka whakaaro ki te whakaahua i a Kurtz, e āhua nei kona i roto i te pūrākau taketake, he tangata nāna tonu i whāngai ia aronga.
Heoi anō, i hoki mai a ia i te tau kotahi mano e 1989 i te Wā Maroke Mā, i runga anō i te pukapuka anō o André Brink 1979.
I whiwhi whakamihi a Brando mo tana mahinga, i riro i a ia tētahi taunga Whakawa Matua mō te Kaitapere Tautoko Tino Pai, ā, i whiwhi i te Tohu Kaitapere Tino Pai i te Hākari Whitiāhua o Tokyo.
I whakanuihia e te momo te mahi a Brando hei Sabatini me te kii, "Ko te mahi pukuhohe whakahirahira a Marlon Brando te mea i piki ake ai te tangata o te tauhou mai i te pukuhohe poipoi ki tetahi waahi ataahua o te hitori o nga kiriata." "
I kii te tuhinga a te Kaituhi a Moreau a Ron Hutchinson i tana tuhinga roa, Clinging to the Iceberg: Writing for a Living on the Stage and in Hollywood (2017), na Brando i whakahawea te mahi a te kiriata nei ma te whakahee me te kore e whakaae ki te mahi tahi me ona hoa mahi. nga kaimahi kiriata.
Ko tana tūnga whakamutunga tēnei me tōna tūranga anake hai āhuatanga wahine.
He maha nga tau o te tama a te kaitapere, a Miko, he kaiāwhina a Jackson, a, he hoa no te kaiwaiata. "
He uaua te ngākau o papa i ōna rā whakamutunga, a, i te nuinga o te wā kai te hāora a ia.
No reira ka whakawhiwhia e Mikaera ki a Papa he kaata korowha me tana taika hāora kawe kia taea e ia te huri haere me te koa ki Neverland.
I mate hoki a ia i te mate huka me te mate pukupuku ate.
I whakaurua tana rārangi tāhopu takitahi i roto i te kēmu whakamutunga hai takoha ki te kaitapere.
Ka kī atu he Brando āwangawanga ki a Malden kai te taka tonu atu a ia.
I mua noa i tana matenga, ko te āhua nei i whakakāhore a ia i te whakaaetanga mo nga ngongo e mau hāora ana kia kōkuhutia ki roto i ōna pūkahu, a, i kōrerotia, ko ia anake te huarahi e whakaroa ai i tōna oranga.
"I te tau 1976, ka kōrerotia e ia ki tētahi kaipānui Wīwī, "He nui rawa te āhua o te tōpūtanga wahinetanga, kua kore kōrero ināianei."
Ahakoa kāore i kōrerotia e ia ōna mārenatanga, āna wāhine me ngā tamariki i waenganui i ōna kaitohutohu.
I tutaki a Brando ki te kaiwhakaari wahine a Rita Moreno i te 1954, ana ka tiimata te whanaungatanga aroha.
I ngā tau i muri i to rātau pakarutanga, ka tākaro ā ringa aNono i tōna painga ki te whitiāhua The Night of the Day After.
E kiia ana ko ia he tamahine nā tētahi kaimahi tīra o Uēra, he mōhiotanga o Kīrihi, a William O'Callaghan, he kaiwhakahaere i nga rerewhenua o te Kāwanatanga o Īnia.
He tama ta Brando raua ko Kashfi, ko Christian Brando, i te 11 o Mei, 1958; i wehe raua i te tau 1959.
Tokorua a raua tamariki: Miko Castaneda Brando (whanau 1961) raua ko Rebecca Brando (whanau 1966).
I te mea he kaikōrero Wīwī māori a Teriipaia, ka tino matatau a Brando i te reo, ā, he tini nga whakamātauranga i te reo Wīwī.
I wehenga a Brando rāua ko Teriipaia i a Hōngongoi 1972.
He whanaunga roa tōna pānga o Brando ki tōna kaitiaki whare, o Maria Cristina Ruiz, tokotoru ana tamariki: ko Ninna Pirihera Brando (i whanau i te 13 o Me 1989), ko Myles Jonathan Brando (whanau i te 16 o Ānuare 1992), me Timothy Gahan Brando (whanau i te 6 o Me 1994).
Ko ōna mokopuna tini ko Prudence Brando raua ko Hato Brando, ko nga tama a Miko C. Brando; ko nga tama a Rebecca Brando; me nga tama tokotoru a Kahotu Brando i roto i era atu.
I te wā o te whakaahuatanga o Mutiny i runga i te Mārō (1962) te āhua nei he whakapakari i tōna rongo he whetū uaua.
I whai a Galella i a Brando, i haere tahi nei me te kaihautū whakaatu kōrero a Tiki Cavett, i muri i te patotanga o te Whakaaturanga o Tiki Cavett i Te Taone nui o New York.
Na te whakakite i a Mutiny i runga i te Kawenga i pā ki te ora o Brando i runga i te āhua hōhonu, i a ia e aroha ana ki Tahiti me tōna iwi.
Na te āwhā o te tau kotahi mano, i 1983, i whakangaromia te nuinga o nga hanganga tae noa ki tōna whāngai.
I whakarārangitia a ia ki roto i ngā pūkete Te Komihana Whakawhitiwhiti Ahuwhānui (FCC) hei Mātini Brandeaux hei tiaki i tōna tūmataitinga.
I haere a ia ki ētahi kaitiaki moni mo John F. Kennedy i te pōti perehipera o te tau kotahi rau e toru tekau mā 1960.
I te ngahurutanga o te 1967, i haere a Brando ki Ripingira, Hinerangi i tētahi rōpū aroha i whakaritea e UNICEF i te Whare Tapeke Taone o Hekerangi.
I kōrero a ia mo nga tika me te āwhina whanaketanga a te tamariki i nga whenua tipua.
"I whakaaro ahau ka pai ake taku haere ki te kimi i tēnā wāhi; he pēhea te pango i tēnei whenua; he aha te āhua o tēnei riri,"" te kī a Brando i te whakaaturanga kōrero ABC-TV a Iao Pīho.
"Tērā tētahi o ngā mahi tino whakamīharo o te toa i kitea e au, a, he nui te mahi, a, he nui tana mahi.""
"I te tau kotahi mano e 1964, i hopukina a Brando i tētahi "ika-mai"" i puritia ki te whakahē i tētahi tiriti pakaru i kīia mai i ngā mana hī ika a ngā ā Iwi o Māori i Puget Sound."
"I whakamutua e Brando tana tautoko ā-pūtea mō te rōpū mā tōna mōhiotanga ki te nui haere o te awhenuatanga, i roto i tētahi tohutohu Panther i tukuna e Eldridge Cleaver e tautohe ana i te tutu kaua, ""mō te Huri""
I te whakahaeretanga ka whakaaturia ia e Hacheen Littlefeather.
I hopukina e te takahanga te aroaro o te US me te pāpāho o te ao.
He kaikōrero anō a ia ki te whakatāwea tangata.
Kua whakarārangihia ia e te American Film Institute te tuawha o nga whetu tane nui i puta i mua i te waa ranei i te tau 1950 (i puta i te tau 1950).
"I whiwhi a Encyclopedia Britannica i a ia i te 19 o Aokere 2009.E whakaahuatia ana a ia ko "te hunga tino whakamahara o nga kaitapere tikanga, me tana tukunga parakore, i whakataua ai tōna whakawhanaketanga i te whakangungu i ngā tino mātanga o te ao."
He whanaketanga a ia na te kaiārahi o te pirihiwi me te whakaparahaki.
Kua noho tana whakaahuatanga i te kaiārahi rōpū, a, a, ko Johny Strabler i Te Mea Mohoao hei atahanga tūhāhā, he tohu no te whakakeke me tētahi taonga whai huarahi e pupuri ana i tētahi koti hikohikoi kāhua Perfecto, he pū honga, he tarau mārō, he mōrahi mārō hoki.
Ko te tirohanga ""Tērā pea he pūtau" au mai i te Paerewa, e ai ki te kaituhi o Rangitahi Boomer, mā Martin H. Levinson, ko "tētahi o ngā tirohanga tino rongonui i roto i te hītori pikitia nekeneke, ā, kua noho te raina ki tētahi wāhanga o te rārangi ahurea o Amerika.""
"Me whakarite koe kia whakapono rātau kai te mate koe ... Me ngana ki te whakaaro ki te wā tino āta noho i roto i tō oranga.""
I te tau kotahi mano 1999, i whakatū ai ia i te Whare Wānanga Kiriata o Amerika, ko ia e waru i roto i tana rārangi o ngā whetū tane tino nui rawa o te Tau Koura Hollywood.
He kaikanikani, he mātanga, he puhāhā, he maha nga tau i noho ai a ia i roto i tōna kaikanikani me te pukumahi, kia whiwhi rā anō ia ki tana wāhanga whakatau tuatahi i te 1925.
I muri i ngā arotakenga raruraru, Warner Bros. i hainatia ia mo tētahi kirimana tuatahi $400-i-te-wiki, e toru wiki tekau mā rua wiki; no te kitenga o nga kaiwhakahaere i te whare pikitia i nga raruraru tuatahi mo te pikitia, ka whakatoroa wawetia te kānataraki a Cagney.
I whakaingoatia a ia kia toru te wā i te tau kotahi, i te tau kotahi rau e 1955 mō te Aroha Mai, Waiho mai rānei ahau Doris Day.
I haere atu a Cagney i te Warner Bros. he maha nga wā i te wā o tana mahi, ia wā e hoki ana ki runga i te pai ake o te whakaritenga whaiaro me te toi.
I mahi a ia mo tētahi kamupene pikitia takitahi mo te tau i te whakataunga o te hūtu, i te whakatū i tōna ake kamupene whakanao, i te 1942 i mua i te hokinga atu ki Warner e whitu tau i muri iho.
Ko Cagney te tuarua o nga tamariki tokowhitu, tokorua o rātau i mate i roto i nga marama o rātau whānautanga.
E rua nga nekehanga a te whānau i a ia e tamariki ana, tuatahi ki te Rāwhiti 79th Street, kātahi ki te Tiriti o te Rāwhiti 96.
E pouri ana ahau mo te tamaiti, he wā tino pūmahara tōna.
He kaiwhaiwhai tiriti pai ia, e tiaki ana i tōna tuakana ko Harry, he tauira rongoā, ina hiahiatia.
I uru a ia ki ngā mātauranga matua, i te tīmatanga hei taitama mātakitaki mō tētahi āheitanga Hainamana i te Whare Takiwā o Lenox Hill (tētahi o ngā whare kāinga tuatahi i te iwi) i mahi ai tōna tuakana Harry, ā, ko Florence James i tohutohu ai.
Ka tīmataria e te whakaaturanga te pāhono 10 tau o Cagney me te vaudeville me te Toiora.
Kātahi anō rātau ka tono moni, a, ka hoki whakamuri ki New York mā Hōkaika me Miriuoki, i te hinganga mau tonu i te huarahi i a rātau e ngana ana ki te mahi moni i runga i te atamira.
Anō ki a Pitter Patter, ka haere a Cagney ki te whakamātautau māmā noa iho ka whiwhi a ia ki te wāhi.
He hurihanga tino kino tēnei o ngā takahanga mō Cagne; i tua atu i nga uaua ararau o tēnei i whakaaturia—ko nga kawenga a te tokorua i te pupuri i te kaipuke, a, i tukuna atu e rāua to rāua nohoanga.
"I whakaaro ia ka whiwhi mahi a ia i tētahi atu mahi.""
I whakatūria anō e Cagney he kura kanikani ma nga tohunga, kātahi ka utaina he wāhi i roto i te tākaro Women Go On Forever, he mea toroa e Hoani Cromwell, e whā marama te oma.
I whiwhi arotakenga raruraru te whakaaturanga, ā, i whaia mai e Grand Street Follies o te tau kotahi rau e 1929.
Retitled Sinners' Holiday, i tukua te pikitia i te 1930.
Heoi anō, i whakaaetia e te kānataraki Warners ki te whakataka i a ia i te mutunga o tētahi wā 40 wiki, e whakaū ana i a ia kia 40 wiki anake te rauemi i te wā kotahi.
Na te kaha o ngā arotakenga i whiwhi ai ia i roto i tana mahi pikitia poto, ka panaia a Cagney hei tangata ngāwari Matt Doyle, anga atu ki Edward Woods hei Tom Powers.
I kī te kaiwhakanao Darryl Zanuck i whakaaro a ia i roto i tētahi hui hōtuhi; I kī mai te whakaaro ki a ia i tana kitenga i te hua wāina i runga i te tēpu i te wā o te kopere; I kiia e ratou ko ngā kaituhituhi Glasmon me Bright he mea take ia i runga i te ora pono o te kaimahi o te mahi a te kaimahi Hymie Weiss, nāna i maka he ometa ki te mata o tona hoa kotiro.
Kore rawa ahau i moemoeā ka whakaaturia i roto i te whitiāhua.
"Ka rite tonu tana kite i te pikitia kia kite i taua tirohanga, ā, i ētahi wā ka whakakāhoretia e nga kaihoko riri ina kaha rawa tana kata rekareka.""
Warner Bros. i tere te whakahaere i ana whetu rōpū e rua e piki ake ana—Edward G. Robinson me Cagney —mō te whitiāhua Smart Money o te tau 1931.
I a ia e whakaoti ana i te whakaahuatanga, e whakakī ana te The Public Enemy i te wharehoko me nga whakaaturanga o te pō katoa.
Na nga upoko o te whare taupuni i whakahau kia haere tonu a Cagney ki te whakatoko i a rātau pikitia, ahakoa kāore a ia i roto, nāna i ātete.
Nā te angitu o The Public Enemy me te Blonde Crazy i ākia i ngā ringa o ngā Parata Warner.
I tere te whai i te pikitia e Te Crowd Roars me Toa Tango Katoa.
E taupatupatu ana hoki nga kaituhituhi kōrero mo te āhua o te hītori hai mutunga i a ia anō, me tōna whai painga ki te hoatu i te tirohanga ki nga raruraru o tēnei wā.
Heoi anō, nā nga āhuatanga ahurea tahito i āwhina ki te whakaputa i ngā whakamāramatanga rerekētanga o te āhua o te hītori kua rerekē i ngā rau tau, ā, ka huri tonu i tēnei rā.
"Ko Herodotu, he kaipānui reo Kariki i te rau 5, e whakaarotia ana he "matua o te hītori"" i roto i te tikanga ki te Uru, ahakoa i whakahētia hoki ia he "matua o te teka"."
I te reo Ingarihi Waenga, ko te tikanga o te hitori ko "korero" i te nuinga.
"I roto i ngā reo Tiamana, Wīwī, me te nuinga o ngā reo Tiamana me te Tātaa, he tino mārō, he kōrero mārō, he tino mārō, ka whakamahia tonutia te kupu hei whakamōhio i te ""hītori"" me te ""pūrākau"."
"I roto i ngā kupu a Benedetto Croce, ""Ko te hītori katoa he hītori o nāianei"."
"Nā reira, ko te kaupapa ture o te pūranga o te kaituhituhi kōrero, he hua nā te kokoti i tētahi pūranga ahuwhānui ake mā te muhu i te whakamahinga o ētahi kuputuhi me ētahi tuhinga (mā te whakakore i ā rātou kerēme hei tohu i te ""mua pono")."
I ētahi wā kua whakawāteatia te akoranga hītori hei wāhanga o te tangata me ētahi atu wā hei wāhanga o te pūtaiao iwi.
No te rau tau 20 i hurihia ai e te kaipānui kōrero Wīwī o Fernand Braudel te akoranga o te hītori, mā te whakamahi i ēnei tikanga o waho hei mātauranga, he tikanga tangata, me te papawhenua i roto i te mātauranga o te hītori o te ao.
Ko te ahuwhānui, ka taea te wehe i ngā pūtake o te mātauranga hītori ki ngā kāwai e toru: ko ngā mea i tuhituhia, ko ngā kōrero e kī ana, me ngā mea e tiakina ā-tinanatia ana, ā, ko te nuinga o te wā e pānui ana ngā kaituhituhi i ngā wā katoa e toru.
Āhua kore nei e tū takitahi ana te māriretanga o te rangahau, me nga pūtake kōrero e tāpiri ana i ōna tūhura.
"Hei tauira, kua rapu a Mark Leone, te whakakōnake me te kaiwhakamaori o Anapoli hītori, Maryland, USA, ki te mārama ki te whakahēnga i waenganui i ngā tuhinga kuputuhi e whakarite ana i te "tuku noa", me te pūkete rawa, e whakaatu ana i te pupuritanga o ngā pono me ngā āhuatanga taonga i kitea e te whakaakoranga o te taiao hītoringa katoa."
Ka taea e ngā kōrero hītori te māharahara ki a rātau anō ki te tino tauwhāiti me te tino ahuwhānui, ahakoa kei te whakawhāititia te au o nāianei.
I te tuatoru, tērā pea e pā ana ki te take i puta ai te hītori: te whakaaro o te hītori.
Nā wai i whakaputaina ai (kaititotanga)?
He aha te uara mārama o ōna ihirangi (whakawhirinaki)?
Ko te aratuka hītori ko nga tikanga me ngā tohutohu e whakamahia ai e ngā kōrero hītori ngā pūtake matua me ētahi atu tohutohu ki te rangahau, kātahi ki te tuhi hītori.
Thucydides, ehara i te mea ko te hītori Herodotus, he hua na ngā kōwhiringa me ngā mahi a te tangata, ā, i titiro ki te take me te pānga, kaua ko te hua o te whāwhina a te Atua (ahakoa ko Herodotus kāore i tino ū ki tēnei whakaaro i a ia anō).
Tērā nga tikanga kōrero hītori me te whakamahinga mātauranga o te tikanga hītori i Haina o neherā, o mua rānei.
I whakamahia e nga kaituhituhi Hainamana o ngā wā hautanga o muri mai i Haina tōna Hiī hai hōputu whaimana mō ngā kuputuhi hītori, tae atu ki ngā tuhinga ā-kōrero.
I te wā tata ki te 1800, nā te whānuitanga me te kōrero Tiamana Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel i mau mai te whakaaro me tētahi huarahi nui ake i te mātauranga tūranga.
Ko te taketake o Ibn Khaldun he mea kia mōhio ko te rerekētanga ā iwi o tētahi atu pakeke me whakahaere te arotakenga o ngā rauemi hītori hāngai, kia wehea ai ngā tikanga e taea ai te whakamātau i te arotakenga, me te whakamutunga kia rongo i te hiahia wheako, tāpiri atu ki ngā tikanga whakahauhau, kia taea ai te aromatawai i tētahi ahurea o mua.
"I whakatakotoria hoki e tana tikanga hītori he papa mō te kitenga i te āhua o te āhua, te whakawhitiwhitinga, te rītaha pūnaha, me te tītaha pūnaha i roto i te hītori,H. Mowlana (2001). ""
Takuta S.W. Akhtar (1997). """
Mō Kapa, me āta kohikohi tika ngā raraunga hītori, ka tirotiro tōtika, me te whakawhāiti ki te puku takenui.
I te rau tau 20, ka iti iho te arotahi o nga kaituhituhi pūrākau mātauranga ki ngā kōrero ā-iwi e pīrangitia ana, e whakakororia ana i te iwi, i ngā tāngata nunui rānei, ki ngā arotakenga whānui, matatini hoki o ngā āinga pāpori me te hinengaro.
Ko te nuinga o nga kaikaupū o te hītori he pūtaiao pāpori, kua mōhiotia rānei mō to rātau tikanga whakawhitiwhiti maha.
Kotahi anō te ariā hītori i ahu mai i te pene a te Kaituhituhi ngaio.
Kua tautohetia e nga kaituhituhi hinengaro pērā i a Herbert Butterfield, a Ernst Nolte ko George Mosse te tikanga o nga whakaaro i roto i te hītori.
I rapu ngā tohunga pērā ki Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw me Detlev Peukert ki te tirotiro i te āhua o te oranga ia rā mō ngā tāngata noa i Tiamana o te rau tau 20, i te tuatahi o te wā Nazi.
Kua tautohetia e ngā kaituhituhi mana wahine pēnei i a Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, me Ngā Hāhi o Runga i te hira o te ako i nga wāhine i mua.
Ko tētahi atu āraitanga o te hītori i te whakahēnga i muri i ngā rā o nāianei ko te pukapuka kōrero o Ahiterēiria (Keith Windschuttle's 1994), Ko te Tapahanga o Hītori.
He maha nga tikanga e puta ai nga whakarerenga hītori, ā, ka whai pānga hōhonu ki ngā pūkete hītori.
Ko te hītori o neherā: ko te akoranga mai i te tīmatanga o te hītori tangata tae noa ki nga Tau o Waenganui.
Hītori anō: ko te tātaritanga hītori o ngā mea pāpori me ngā mea ahurea kāore i whakatikia ki ngā rohenga ā-motu.
Hītori ahurea: te akoranga ahurea i mua.
Hītori hinengaro: ko ngā akoranga whakaaro i roto i te horopaki o nga tikanga ka puta i a rātou me to rātau whanaketanga i roto i te wā.
Hītori hōu: te akoranga o ngā Wā Hōu, te wā i muri i nga Pakeke o Waenganui.
Pukapuka kāhui kōrero: ako i nga kuputuhi tahito.
Āhuatanga ā-hinengaro: akona nga whakahau ā-ā-hinengaro o nga takahanga kōrero hītori.
Te kōrero o nga wahine: te kōrero mo te hunga tangata wahine.
Ko te nuinga o nga wā ka whakamahia noatia ngā rau tau me te wā e whakaatu ana rātou i runga i te pūnaha rāhui i whakamahia.
Kia mahia ai tēnei, he rite tonu te huri a nga kaipūāhua kōrero ki te papawhenua.
Hei tauira, hei whakamārama i te take i angitu ai te mahi a nga Ihipiana o Mua, he mea nui te ako i te papawhenua o Īhipa.
Ko te hītori o Amerika te hītori whakatōpū o Amerika ki te Raki me te Tonga, tae atu ki Amerika Waenga me ngā Kāriana.
Ka tīmata te hītori o ngā Kāriana ki ngā tohu tawhito rawa i kitea ai te pakeke 7,000 tau.
Ko te hītori o Wīra ko te hītori whakatōpū o ētahi atu rohe taiapa tūtahi: Ki Waenganui Rāwhiti, Āhia ki te Tonga, Āhia ki te Tonga, Āhia ki te Tonga-mārō, me Ūropi, e honoa ana e te pāpātanga ā roto o te kūrae hīrere o Āhia Waewae, o Ūropi ki te Rāwhiti.
Ko te hītori o Āhia ki te Rāwhiti te mātauranga o nga mea o mua, mai i tētahi whakatupuranga ki tētahi whakatupuranga i Āhia ki te Rāwhiti.
Kua whakaahuatia te hītori o Āhia Māwhāwhiti hei tauwhitiwhiti i waenganui i ngā kaipāpāho ā rohe me nga mana o waho.
Ko te hītori pāpori ""tawhito"" i mua i nga tau o nga tau1960, he wehewehe kaupapa kāore he tāhuhu matua, ā, i ētahi wā, ko ngā nekehanga tōrangapū, pēnei i pēnei i pēnei i "pāpori"" i roto i te āhua o te noho i waho i te pūnaha ā-rangatira."
Ka whakamātauria e ia nga kōrero me nga whakaahuatanga kōrero o te mōhiotanga o mua, nga tikanga, me nga toi o tētahi rōpū iwi.
Ko tēnei momo hītori tōrangapū te mātauranga o te whanonga o ngā pānga aowhānui i waenganui i ngā whenua, puta noa rānei i ngā rohe ā rohe i te roanga o te wā.
I rongonuitia te rongonui o Te Hononga o Amerika, o Hāpana me ētahi atu whenua i muri mai i te tau1980, i te kitenga e hiahia ana ngā ākonga ki tētahi mārakerake whānui ake ki te ao hei haerenga o te aorangi.
Ahakoa he āpure hōu rawa, he nui te pānga o te hītori ira tangata ki te akoranga hītori ahuwhānui.
I tāhaetia te mōhiotanga i Oxford, i Kemeke, i te mōhiotanga.
I whakataua e nga kaiako te taupatupatu kia mutu rā anō te Pakanga Tuarua o te Ao.
I Te Hononga o Amerika i muri i te Pakanga Nui, ka puta he nekehanga kaha ki te taumata o te whare wānanga ki te whakaako i ngā akoranga i te Iwi o te Uru, kia hoatu ai ki ngā ākonga he taonga tuku iho noa ki Uropi.
He tokomaha e tiro ana i te āpure mai i ngā tirohanga e rua.
I Te Hononga o Amerika, he rerekē ngā pukapuka i whakaputaina e te kamupene kotahi i te ihirangi mai i tētahi kāwanatanga ki tētahi kāwanatanga.
I ētahi wā e whawhai ana nga kaipūkōrero mātauranga ki nga pūkinotanga o nga pukapuka, i ētahi wā i angitu.
Ko te iwi (iwi rānei) he iwi matatini e whakaahuatia ana e te whanaketanga taone, te raupapa pāpori, he momo kāwanatanga, he pūnaha tohu hoki o te whakawhiti kōrero (pēnei i te tuhituhi).
I tēnei āhuatanga whānui, ko tētahi iwi i taumira ki ngā rōpū ā iwi kē, tae atu ki nga tikanga o ngā whakataka motumotu, ngā rōpū Neoliti, nga kaiwhakangahau rānei; heoi anō, i ētahi wā he taumira anō ki nga tikanga ka kitea i roto i ngā iwi anō.
Ko te whakaahuatanga taketake ko Norbert Elias The Civilizing Process (1939), e whakataki ana i ētahi atu pāpori mai i te whenua kōti o te whenua o te whenua o te wā o mua ki te Wā o Mua o Nāianei.
"Ko ngā kupu whai pānga pēnei i te "tūmatanui"" i hangaia i waenganui i te rau tau-16."
"I te tōmuritanga o ngā 1700s me te tōmua o ngā tau 1800, i te wā o te Tauwhitinga o Wīwī, i whakamahia ai ""te iwi"" ki tētahi kotahi, kore rawa i roto i te takitini, a, ko te haerenga whakamua o te tangata katoa."
"I roto i tēnei āhuatanga whānui anake ka taea te kōrero ki tētahi "tama awatea",", tērā i roto i te āhuatanga o Iraia hei pururangi."
"I konei, nā te mea he nui ake te hauora me te ārai pāpori, kāore e tino rite ana ki te āhua tangata, ā, "ka taea anake te katoa o te tangata, i te whakaora, i te whakararurarutanga rānei ki tētahi kotahitanga māori ake, mōkito rānei".
Kua whakawāteatia ngā iwi i a rātau āhuatanga o te whakapainga, te momo oranga, ngā tauira whakatau, ngā āhuatanga o te kāwanatanga, te raupapa pāpori, ngā pūnaha pūtea, te pūnaha pūkenga me ētahi atu āhuatanga ahurea.
I whakawhirinaki katoa ngā ihu i runga i te ahuwhenua mо̄ te hararei, engari rawa atu i ētahi ihumanawa o mua i Peru, tērā pea i whakawhirinakitia ki ngā rawa moana.
He tino hira rawa nga tini kānga, notemea he roa te wā e taea te rokiroki i te kāniwha.
Heoi anō, i ētahi wāhi he āheitanga a nga kaiwhaiwhai ki nga mahi kai, pērā i ētahi o ngā iwi taketake o te Raki-mā-hihi o Te Moana-nui-a-Kiwa, i te wā o te ahurea Mesolithic Natufian.
I ētahi wā e tautuhia noatia ana ""te kupu ""taurara"" he ""'noho i roto i ngā pa'".".
He tokomaha atu te rōpū i to nga ihupuku; He nui ake te rerekētanga i waenganui i nga karaehe pāpori.
Ko nga iwi, me nga aroākapa pāpori matatini, a, he mana whakaraupapa, he mana ā iwi.
E whiwhi ana hoki ētahi tāngata i te pānga whenua, te rangatiratanga tūmataiti rānei o te whenua.
I te wā o mua o te Tau Haena, ka mahia e nga iwi o nāianei he moni hei whakawhitiwhiti mo nga tauwhitinga tino matatini.
Kāore pea ēnei tāngata e mōhio ki a rātou anō, ā, kāore pea ō rātau hiahia i te wā kotahi.
Ko te whakawhitinga mai i nga tauwhiro māmā ake ki nga taunga matatini kāore i te tikanga kia whakapai ake i nga tikanga ora o te whānuitanga.
Ko te toharite o te toenga o te iwi whānui, he nui tonu te āhua o te āheitanga ki nga mea e hiahiatia ana, ko te tino kai.
Me te moni, i whiwhi te tuhituhi i te rahi o te nuinga o te pa, i te whiwhinga o tōna tauhokohoko i waenganui i te iwi kahore e mōhio tahi ki a rātou.
Kei roto i ēnei ko ngā hāhi whakarite, te whanaketanga o nga toi, me ngā kōkiri hou rawa i roto i te pūtaiao me te hangarau.
"Ko ēnei ahurea e karangatia ana e ētahi "tawhito"", he kupu e whakaarotia ana e ētahi atu hei pūhohe. """
"I tēnei rā, ka whakamahia e ngā mātauranga tikanga te kupu ""kāore i te tuhituhi"" ki te whakaahua i ēnei tāngata."
Engari kei te tohaina hoki te iwi e te mana hangarau, rawa, me te pāpori, e kaituku ana i te iwi.
Ka āhei nga iwi ki te whakawhanake i ngā tikanga pūnguru, tae atu ki tētahi āhuatanga whakatau ā-kāwanatanga, he tuhinga, he toi ngaio, he hoahoa, he whakarite whakapono me ngā tikanga matatini o te akoranga, te whakahauhau me te whakahaere e pā ana ki te mau i te rōpū matapō.
Ko te kiriraru e noho ana tētahi tangata, ko te tuakiri ā ihurea tino whānui o taua tangata.
Ko te whāinga kia pupuri i te tuku iho ahurea o te tangata me te tuakiri ahurea hoki, i te take o te whawhai me te papā patu.
"Ka whakamahia e te kaiako o te rua tekau-rau o te rua tekau mā rua Oswald Spengler,Spengler, Oswald, te Whakahekenga o te Uru: Ko ngā Tirohanga o te Hītori o te Ao (1919) ka whakamahi i te kupu Tiamana Ure, ""ahurea", mo te mea e kiia ana e te tokomaha ko te "tama a"iwi"."
"Ko te tīmatanga o te whakapeka o tētahi ahurea te tīmatanga o te mōreareatanga o te pānga maori "ko ngā tūnga tino ā-waho, waihanga hoki ka taea e tētahi momo tangata tupu"."
"Ko te nuinga o te wā ka whakapeka, i hinga ngā atawhai, e ai ki a Toynbee, nā te rahunga o te ""iti noa iho", mā te whakapeka i te tikanga whakapono, i te whakapeka whakapono rānei, ki te tūtaki i ētahi wero hira, kaua ko ngā take o te ohaoha noa, taiao rānei."
Hei tauira, ko ngā whatunga mahi, tae noa ki te tekau ma iwa o nga rau, nui ake i ngā wāhi ahurea, i ngā wāhi tōrangapū rānei.
I te wā o Uru, kua tautohe a Guillermo Algaze, ko ngā whanaunga hokohoko e hono ana ki Īhipa, ki Mesopotamia, ki Īrāna me Āwhekenetāna.
He āhua ā-wāhi ā-ā-ikei, he āhuatanga ā-ikei, he āhuatanga anō, ahakoa rōpū, he maha nga huarahi i roto i nga hau i ngā āhuatanga rerekē o te ao.
I muri iho ka roha te Iwi Waenganui kia whakauru atu ki ngā Rāwhiti Waenganui me Ūropi katoa, kātahi ka roha ki tētahi tauine ao whānui me te whakanohotanga o Ūropi, ki te whakakotahi i ngā Amerika, Ahitereiria, Haina me Hapani i te tekau mā iwa o nga rau tau.
I whakahaua e tēnei tētahi hurihanga hua tuarua i whakamahia ai e te tāngata he kararehe kāinga, ehara i te mīti anake, engari mō te miraka, wūru, pūngao, me te tō i ngā parau me ngā kāta – he whanaketanga e toha ana i roto i te Eurasian Oecumene.
"Kua kitea tēnei wāhi he "whakahauhau" i ētahi o ngā whanaketanga tino hira i roto i te hītori tangata tae atu ki te hanganga o te wira, te whakatōnga o ngā hua kai paraihe tuatahi me te whanaketanga o te hōtuhi pehu"."."
I nekehia e tēnei āhuatanga te ōwehenga utu nui o te tutuki toiwhenua i waenganui i ngā iwi whānui, ā, i kite i te whakarerenga o ngā iwi kāinga kāore i te pātū, me te āhua o ngā taone pakitara, e pā ana ki nga iwi tuatahi.
I te wā e whakamauru ana te hurihanga taone i runga anō i te whanaketanga o te whakakotahitanga, te whakakotahitanga o ngā kākano me te kararehe, te mau tonu o ngā kāinga me te whanaketanga o ngā mahi āhua noho i whakararuraru ai i te tauine me te whakatōpūtanga o te nui atu o te whakanaotanga e ētahi wāhanga pāpori.
Ko ētahi e arotahi ana ki nga tauira hītori, me ētahi atu i runga i te ariā ahuwhānui.
"Mo Kipi, ""Ko te whakapekatanga o Roma te pānga tūturu, a, e kore e taea te nui."
"I huatau a Theodor Mommsen i tōna Hītori o Roma kia ngaro a Roma i te tiangotanga o te Emepera o Roma ki te raki o te 476 CE, ā, i aro atu hoki ia ki tētahi tairitenga koiora o ""kēneti", ""tupu", ""senescence", "tiango", "" me te "pirau"."
Nā Arnold J. Toynbee i huatau i roto i tana A Study of History he nui kē atu ngā ihumanawa, tae atu ki te tokomaha o ngā ihumanawa i hopukina, ā, ko ngā haumanu katoa i whakatika i te huringa e mōhiotia ana e Mommsen.
Nā Anō J. Toynbee i huatau i roto i tana A Study of History he nui kē atu ngā ihumanawa, tae atu ki te tokomaha o ngā ihumanawa i hopukina, ā, ko ngā haumanu katoa i whakatika i te huringa e mōhiotia ana e Mommsen. …
Ngā Huringa ā-Wāhi Me ngā AhuWhānui.
Ko te mea i hiahiatia e Rōma ki te whakaputa i ngā moni nui ake, hei whakaraupapa, hei whakaraupapa anō i ngā ope taua mo te wā tuatahi i hinga ai i te papa, i ahu mai ai ki te āraitanga o te Emepera.
E tautohe ana a ia he akoranga tō te tiango o te Maya mo te whakararuraru i tēnei rā.
Ko te pūngao e whakapaea ana ki te ōwehenga tuku pūngao, he tau tūnga mo te whakawhāiti i te ora o nga ihurangi.
I kī a Koneczny kāore e taea te whakaranu i ngā ihumanawa ki te kawekawe, he hauāratanga tōraro ina whakaritea he mana ōrite i roto i tētahi tau ikeike nui.
Ko te Kaituhituhi Reo Kāwanatanga Ahurea, ko Māhari Berman e hua ana i ngā Wā o Amerika: Ko te Mutunga o te Emepara, i roto i te kaihokohoko rangatōpū o Amerika, ko ngā take tino take i akiaki ai ki te nui-nui-a-kikokiko-a-nuku-ā-rohe, rohe me ngā mahi rawa-ā-hanganga,ā, kua pana te Hononga o Amerika ki tētahi paepae nui i reira tē mōrearea.
E honoa ana te whakangohe o ēnei pou, Jacobs ki nga mate pāpori pēnei i te mōrearea o te taiao, te whakahāwea me te ngaronga e tipu ana i waenganui i te rangatira me te rawakore.
Ko tēnei hiahia kia nui ake ngā rauemi ka kawea mai e ngā iwi, e tautohetohe ana, e takea ana i a rātou whakahāwea noa me te whakahāwea i ā rātou ake rauemi paetata.
"I roto i te whakairoiro, ko te tikanga o Te Ma ""miriona tau ki mua".)"
He nui te Whenua i whakarewaina nā nga tūtuki auau ki ētahi atu tinana i puta ai ki te tino pārekareka.
I puta mai te tangata e mōhiotia ana i te nuinga o te 2 miriona tau ki mua, he wā iti ngaro i runga i te tauine papawhenua.
E whakaarohia ana ko te 99 ōrau o ngā momo katoa i noho i Runga i te Whenua, neke atu i te rima tekau mā rua, kua ngaro.
Kua rite tonu te rerekē o te kirinuku o te Ao mai i tōna whakatūnga, pērā ki te ora mai i tōna āhua tuatahi.
Ko te āhua o te Marama i tēnei wā, tērā pea nā te tūtukitanga o te tūtuki ki te Whenua.
Kai roto i te haurangi he korohū puia, he kahu kati.
Ka tīmata te hua hāora, te whakatauira i te tuatoru me te au o nga hau takiwā o te Ao.
Ko nga whenua tuatahi o Koropia, o Rodinia, o Pannotia, i taua raupapa, tērā pea i tēnei eonga.
"Ka āta whakawhānui te ora ki te whenua me ngā āhuatanga mōhio o te tipu, o te kararehe me te mahi whakakākā, tae atu ki ngā kirikiri, ngā ngārara me ngā ngārara, nō reira ko te ingoa o te eon, ko te tikanga ""ko te ora ariki"."
He hauwai me te helium i hangaia i muri tata mai i te Big Bang 13.8 Ga (piriona tau ki muri) me nga huānga taumaha ake i peia e te supernovae.
I te tīmatatanga o te kapua ki te whakatere, ka whakapaipaitia e tōna āwhā koki, tōna tō ā-papa, me te inertia ki roto i tētahi kōpae tātari ki tōna tuaka takahuringa.
I muri iho i te haunuku anō, ka kā he whetū T Tauri, a, ka huri ki te Rā.
I penei te hanga o te whenua tata ki te 4.54 piriona tau ki muri (me te 1% koretake) ka oti te nuinga i roto i te 10–20 miriona tau.
Na te kanga rā anō i wera ai tōna roto kia rewa ai te taumaha, i te konganuku pēpi.
Mai i te mārō kai runga i ētahi atu tinana ā-rangi, kua whakatauria he wā o te pānga o te matakōkiri tino kaha, e kiia nei ko te Taipara Taumaha tōmuri, i tīmata tata ki te 4.1 Ga, ā, i mutu i te 3.8 Ga, i te mutunga o te Hadeana.
I te timatanga o te Ahanahana, nui atu te mātaotanga o te Whenua.
Nā ngā whakaaturanga hōu i hua ai te Marama a taihoa ake nei, 4.48 ± 0,02 Ga, 70–110 million tau rānei i muri mai i te tīmatanga o te Pūnaha o Te Kōmaru.
Neke atu i te 100 miriona te pūngao i puta mai i te tūtukitanga, neke atu rā i te pānga Ake o te Arixulub o nā noa nei i whakapono nāna i whakaputa ai i ngā māina kore.
Na te ariā o te ariā i tohu ai kua pau te marama i te mea konganuku, e whakamārama ana i tana hanganga rerekē.
Ko te kirinuku tuatahi, i hangā i te whakamārōrōtanga tuatahi o te papa o te Ao, ka ngaro atu i te pahekotanga o tēnei papa paraka Hadean, me te pānga kaha rawa o te Taipara Taumaha tōmuri.
Ko ēnei wāhanga tōmuri o Hadean me te kirinuku Ohoranga hai hanga i nga uho e tipu ai nga whenua o tēnei rā.
Ko nga koura i te nuinga o nga momo anganui e rua.
Nā tēnei take, ko nga pounamu i ētahi wā e kitea ana he tohu mo te āheitanga i te Wā o te Archean.
Ināianei tērā pea ka tukua te nuinga o nga pāremata i te wā o te whakakānga e tētahi tukanga e mōhiotia ana he pānga ki te whakararuraru i te pānga o nga tinana taumai.
Ko ngā whetū aorangi i tētahi tawhiti o te 1 o ngā wae tohunga rōnaki (AU), kāore pea te tawhiti o te Ao i te Rā, kāore pea i homai he wai ki te Whenua nā te mea he wera rawa te wai kōmaru hei hanga, ā, kua roa rawa te matewaitanga o ngā toka i te wa wai.
Nā ngā whakaaturanga nōnākuanei e tohu ana kua tīmata pea te āhua o nga moana kia tata tonu ki te 4.4 Ga. Tae noa ki te tīmatanga o te Eon o Archean, he nui kē ō rātau hipoki i te Whenua.
Nā reira, kua 30% te tiaho o te Rā i ngā tau e 4.5 billion kua hipa.
He nui nga tauira, engari he iti te whakaaro, ki te pēhea e puta mai ai te ora i ngā matū kāore i te ora; Ko ngā pūnaha matū i hangaia ki te taiwhanga e taka ana i te whiwhinga mōkito mō tētahi rauropi ora.
Ahakoa i rerekē pea te hanganga hauā ki tērā i whakamahia e Miller rāua ko Urey, nā muri ake rā, ka taea hoki e ētahi whakamātautau tika ake me ngā hanganga tūturu te whakatakoto rāpoi ngohengohe.
Ā kō ake nei ka whakahōutia te RNA e te DNA, he nui ake te pūmanawa, nō reira ka taea te hanga i ngā huinga ira roa ake, e whakaroha ana i te awhe o ngā āheinga ka taea e te rauropi kotahi.
Kei te kimi te uauatanga o te tauari metabolisme-tuatahi i tētahi ara kia tipu ai ngā rauropi.
"I pūrongotia e te rangahau i te tau 2003 ka taea hoki e te montmorillonite te whakatere ake te tahuringa o ngā waikawa ngako ki rō ""mirumiru", ā, ka taea hoki e ngā mirumiru te kōpani i te RNA e tāpiritia ana ki te uku."
Ko tēnei pūtau TĀRUA te tīpuna o te oranga katoa i runga i te Ao i tēnei rā.
He tino nui te whakarerekētanga ki tētahi āhua haurangi ā-hāora.
I whakamahia e rātau te moī, te pakarutanga o ngā pānga matatini kē atu ki ngā pānga iti iho te pūngao, a, ka whakamahia te pūngao i whakawāteatia ai ki te tipu, ki te whakatupu.
Ko te nuinga o te oranga e hāngai ana ki te mata o te Ao, kei te āhua hāngai, i runga anō rānei i te mahi whakaahua.
Hei whakarato i nga irahiko i roto i te ara iahiko, ka tangohia te hauwai i te wai, ka waiho hei hua parakore te hāora.
Tata ana ki te 3.8 Ga te āhua o te ora, kaore i roa te āhua o te ora.
I te tuatahi, i herea te hāora tuku ki te pākeho, ki te rino, me ētahi atu kohuke.
Ahakoa kotahi meneti noa iho te wā i puta ai te hāora o ia pūtau, ahakoa he meneti te wā i hangaia ai e ia pūtau te whakakotahitanga o ngā pūtau maha i roto i tētahi wā nui, ka whakarerekētia te āhua o te Ao ki tōna āhua o nāianei.
I ngongo te apa hāora, e ngongo tonu ana, he nui tonu te nuinga o te hihi tino hākoha i tua atu i te hau takiwā.
Ko au ngongo te apa hāora, e ngongo tonu ana, ko ia nui tonu te nuinga o te hihi tino hākoha i tua atu i hau takiwā.
Ko nga tahua ka kitea i Āwherika ki te Tonga, e whakahokia ana ki te 2.2 Ga, i runga anō i te taunakitanga o te ahoaho, ko te tikanga kua tata tonu ēnei ki te paenga.
Tērā pea nā te nui o te whakamōhiotanga hāora o Huronian i te hau takiwā, nā te hekenga o te mehana (CH4) i te hau takiwā.
Heoi anō, he maha ake te whakamahinga o te Kupu Pōrorangi Whenua hei whakaahua i ngā tau hukapapa o muri ake nei i te wā o te kaioha o Cryogenia.
Ka paheko te waro taikura me te marangai ki nga toka huarere hai hanga waikawa waro, e horoia ana ki te moana, nā reira ka unuhia atu te korohū kati katiora i te hau takiwā.
I te tuatahi pea ka wehe te rohe Huakita i ētahi atu momo oranga (i ētahi wā e kiia nei ko Neoo), engari he tautohetohe tēnei whakaaro.
Ko ngā pūrangi tuatahi e whai ana i ngā āhuatanga pūhohe pūnoa o te rā kā ki te wā o Paleoproterozoic, i ētahi 2.4 i mua; Ko ēnei rauropi pūtaumaha he hanga āhuatanga āhua ka taea e te whakawhānuitanga anō.
I ngana pea te pūtau nui ki te kūnatu i te mea iti iho, engari i rahua (tērā pea nā te kunenga o ngā tauwhāiti pākete).
Mā te whakamahi i te hāora, ka whakamāramatia ngā hua para nui ake o te pūtau, ā, he nui ake te pūngao i whiwhi.
Kātahi anō ka whāngai tētahi pūtautau pūmau i waenganui i te pūtau nui me ngā pūtau iti iho i roto.
I pā mai tētahi āhuatanga ōrite ki te pataterekita whakaahua e tāuru ana i ngā pūtau pakini nui me te tae ki te tae ki ngā pūtau pūwaro nui.
Tērā anō te ariā tūturu o te pūtake pūkoro o te pūngaotoko me ngā chloroplasts, he ariā anō nā ngā pūtau i ārahi ki ngā pūtau pōtae, he maunga rīrapa i ahu mai ki te cilia me te kaingāwai, ā, tērā pea he huaketo DNA i ahu mai ki te karihi pūtau, ahakoa kāore tētahi o rātou i whakaaetia whānuitia.
Tata ana ki te 1.1 Ga te huihuinga o Rodinia.
Ahakoa ko te wehewehenga i waenga i te koroni whai pūtau motuhake me te rauropi pūtau maha i nga wa katoa kare i tino marama, tata ki te 1 piriona tau ki muri, ka puta nga tipu maha tuatahi, he pukohu kaakaa pea.
He tāpiritanga nga tāwhā autōkena e nga whakaaturanga matawhenua pēnei i ngā tātua orotanga, e tohu ana i nga tapa o nga pereti tahito, me nga tuaritanga o Flora me te ao kararehe o mua.
Tata ki te 1000 ki te 830 Ma, ko te nuinga o te nuinga o te whenua tāpui i whakakotahitia i te tuatahi o Rodinia.
I ētahi wā e kiia ana ko Pannotia, Vendia rānei te taupua tuatahi.
Kei te tūpato tonu te kaha me te pūhanga o ngā kararehe e rua, ā, ka uaua ake te whakamārama i te Whenua Huka pōroa o mua.
I te mea he korohū kati hira te CO2, ka whakamātaotia te āhuarangi i te ao whānui.
I te wā kotahi tonu ka nui ake te mahi puia i takea mai i te kokoti o Rodinia.
He nui ake, he rerenga kē atu nga momo hou o te ora, e kiia nei ko Ediacara biota.
E toru ngā kōmā: Ko ngā pukupuku pūkaha, Mesozoic, me Cenozoic, ā, ko te wā ia i whakaputa nui ai te ora pūkoro-maha ki te tata tonu o ngā mea ora katoa e mōhiotia ana i tēnei rā.
Ma tēnei ka ara ake te taumata moana.
Ko nga rehu o te karawhiti mai i tēnei wā, ka kitea noa iho i Gondwana o mua.
I tūtuki ngā whenua whenua ko Kouraia rāua ko Paratika i waenganui i te 450 me te 400 Ma, i te wā o Te Kānoniana Orogeny hei hanga i a Laurussia (e kiia ana hoki ko Euramerica).
Na te tūtukitanga o Hīpia ki Laurusia i takea ai te Orogeny Uralian, ko te tūtukitanga o Gondwana ki Laurussia, ko Variscan, ko Herinian Orogeny rānei i Ūpa, ko te Kanorau Kuputuhi rānei i Amerika ki te Raki.
I te mutunga o te whānuitanga o te whānuitanga o te porohita, kāore anō kia ngāwari noa iho te whakauru ki tētahi rōpū hou, i te mutunga kē o teyla hou o Cambrian.
E āhua matatini ana ētahi o ēnei rōpū Cambrian, engari he tino rerekē ētahi o ēnei rōpū Cambrian i te oranga o nāianei; Ko nga tauira ko Anomalocaris me Haikouichthys.
He mea hanga tērā pea ko te tīpuna o nga ika, tērā rānei i tino pātata mai ki a ia, ko Pikaia.
Ko te ika, ko nga kōiwi tuatahi, ka tipu i roto i nga moana huri noa i te 530 Ma.
Ko ngā mōrea tawhito o te mīharo whenua, o te wā o te tipu rā ki te 480–460 Ma, ahakoa ko ngā whakaaturanga rāpoi ngota e tohu ana i te hunga whakakākā kua whakakoia te whenua i te 1000 Ma me ngā tipu e 700 Ma.
Ka huri a Fins hei waewae mātāmua i whakamahia e nga tetrapoda tuatahi hai hīkī ake i o rātau mahunga ki waho o te wai hai whakahā i te hau.
I te mutunga, i tino pai te āhua o ētahi o rātau ki te oranga tere, ahakoa i paoa e rātau o rātau pakeke ki te whenua, ahakoa i paopao rātau i roto i te wai, a, ka hoki ki te whakatakoto i a rātau hēki.
Ko nga tipu he kākano ka tipu, nāna i whakarewa te tere o to rātau horahanga ki runga i te whenua, i tēnei wā (tata ki te 360 Ma).
I kite anō tētahi atu 30 miriona tau (310 Ma) i te tūpāpaku o nga tongitongi (tae atu ki te whāngote) mai i te māngere (tae atu ki ngā manu me ngā ngārara).
I te 200 o nga māina kōwhai i toru tekau mā Rua-Komihana i tohungia e Mā, a, kātahi anō ka kaha rawa atu rātau i roto i nga kōhao.
Kua ngaro te 60% o nga huripoke moana, a, e 25% o nga whānau katoa.
Ko te toru o te kepunga nui ko te Permian-Triassic, te Nui e Mate ana rānei, tērā pea nā ētahi pahekotanga o te takahanga puia o te Tīwhiti Rīpoiputi, tētahi pānga pāhū aorangi, ngā haumarutanga meha wai, ngā huarahi taumata moana, me tētahi takahanga nui rawa.
Koia tonu tēnei te ngaki mate rawa, tata tonu ki te 57% o ngā whānau katoa me te 83% o nga whakapapa katoa i mate.
Na te omua o Puokoene ka ora te whenua i te ngangau, a, ka nui haere te rerenga whāngote.
Ka tīmata te nui o te āhua o te whenua i tīmata ai te nahana pātītī, me ngā whāngote pērā i te whakarewa a Raurāku, ka noho ko te whāngote pāmu pātītī nui rawa e mōhiotia ana, ā, ko ngā tohorā o mua pēnei i ērā o Paratakuku te whāngai moana.
Ko nga kōpaki whāiti pēnei i a Paraceratherium me Deinotherium te whakahaere i nga tahora.
Na te tūtukitanga o Āwherika me Uropi i kati te Moana o Teti.
Na te piriti whenua i whakaae kia heke atu nga mea ora taratahi o Amerika ki te Raki ki Amerika, a, ko te tuarā atu.
Na nga tau hukapapa i ahu mai ki te whanaketanga o te tangata o nāianei i Āwherika, me te whakawhānuitanga.
E whakaponotia ana e te tini kua puta he hekenga nui ki Peringia, he aha nei, i tēnei rā, he kamera (i pana ka ngaro i Amerika ki te Raki), ngā hoiho (nāna i huri, i korehāhā ki Amerika ki te Raki), me ngā Amerika Maori.
Ka tere te nui o te roro, a, no te 2 Ma, kua puta mai nga kararehe tuatahi i roto i te puku o Homo.
I tīmata pea te kaha ki te whakahaere ahi i Homo erectus (Homo ergaster rānei), neke atu rānei i te 790,000 tau ki mua, engari pea i te 1.5 Ma pea.
He uaua ake te whakatū i te taketake o te reo; e mōhio ana mēnā ka taea e Homo erectus te kōrero, mehemea kāore anō rānei kia tīmata taua āheinga kia tīmata rā anō a Homo ōrite.
Ka nui ake te matatini o nga pūkenga pāpori, ka nui ake te mātanga o te reo, a, ka nui ake te whakamāramatanga o nga utauta.
Ko te tangata tuatahi hei whakaatu i ngā tohu wairua ko te ngā Nekāriki (i te nuinga o te wā he momo motuhake, ā, kaore he uri e ora ana); I tanumia e rātau o rātau tūpāpaku, i te nuinga o te wā, kaore he tohu kai, he taonga rānei.
I te āhua o te matatinitanga o te reo, ka hua te āhei ki te maumahara me te whakawhiti kōrero mōhiohio, i runga anō i tētahi kaupapa i tonoa e Richard Dawkins, i tētahi tāruarua hou: ko te meme.
I waenganui i te 8500 me te 7000 KORE, ka tīmataria e te tangata i te Pewa Tōkaka i te Rāwhiti Waenganui te tahune ā-pūnaha o ngā tipu me ngā kararehe: ahuwhenua.
Heoi anō, i waenganui i aua iwi i whāngai ahuwhenua, ka whakaaetia e te pūmautanga pānga me te nui ake o te hua i whakaratoa e te mahi pāmu te whakawhānui i te iwi whānui.
Nā tēnei i ahu atu ki te ira tuatahi o Te Ao i Sumer i Waenganui Rāwhiti, i waenganui i te 4000 me te 3000 KORE.
Kua kore te tangata e pau i a rātau wā katoa ki te mahi mo te ora, e taea ai ngā mahi motuhake (hei tauira, ngā kaimahi mahi, nga kaihokohoko, ngā tohunga, ērā atu mea).
I te nuinga o te 500 KOREkiko, he whānuitanga i waenganui i ngā Rāwhiti o Waenganui, Irana, Īnia, Haina, me Kariki, i ētahi wā e whakawhānui ana, i ētahi wā e uru ana ki te whakapeka.
I whāngai tēnei i roto i te riri, i te toi, i te pūtaiao, i te pāngarau me te kaihoahoa.
Ko te Emepaea o Roma i Karaitianahia e Emperor Constantine i te timatanga o te rautau 4, a ka heke i te mutunga o te 5th.
I whakatūria te Whare Whakaaro Nui i Aperāti, i Īraki.
No te rau tau 14, ka tīmata te Rehuahua ki Itari ki nga kōkiri i roto i te whakapono, toi, me te pūtaiao.
I timata te hurihanga o te ao Pakeha i te tau 1500, ka ahu mai ki nga huringa putaiao me nga mahi ahumahi.
Mai i te tau 1914 ki te 1918 me te 1939 ki te 1945, i whakatūtūria nga iwi huri noa i te ao.
I muri iho i te whawhai, he maha nga kōrero hou i whakaahuatia, i whakapuaki, i tukuna rānei he rangatiratanga i roto i te wā e wetewete ana.
Kei roto i ngā wāhanga hangarau ko ngā rākau karihi, rorohiko, pūkaha iranga, me te matai taumata.
Ko nga māharahara me ngā raruraru nui pēnei i te mate, te pakanga, te rawakore, te tokeke pākaha, ā, inā noa nei, kua piki te rerekētanga o te āhuarangi i takea mai i te nuinga o te ao.
Ko te hītori tangata, ko te hītori rānei i hopukina, ko te kōrero mo mua o te tangata.
I kite te Rēneti i te tīmatanga o te Whanake Ahuwhenua, i waenganui i te 10,000 me te 5000 BCE, i te Pewa Tōka o te Rāwhiti.
I te mahi pāmutanga, ka nui ake te mātanga o te mahi ahuwhenua, a, ka āki i te wehenga mahi hai whakaputu kai i waenganui i nga wā e tipu ana.
No te tōmuritanga o te Tau o te Āhuru īnia ka whāngaia te āhuatanga o te Tūruhi o Īnia.
I kite te "Hītori o tuatahi(te "Tau Waenganui,"" c. 500–1500 CE,) te putanga ake o te Karaitianatanga, te Tawhito Koura Āmāri (c. 750 CE - c. 1258 CE), me ngā Āhuatanga Anō o Te Tātairangi me te Itāriana (mai i te 1300 CE)."
Tae noa ki te rau tau 18, kua tae te whakaminenga o te mātauranga me te hangarau ki tētahi tino taonga nui, nāna i tīmata i te wā o nāianei, a, ka tīmata i te wā o mua, i tīmata huri noa i te 1800, ā, kua haere tonu i tēnei wā.
Tata ki te 300,000 tau ki mua, ka whakatutuki i te āhuatanga o te āhuatanga i te 50,000 tau ki mua.
Tērā pea i te 1.8 miriona tau ki mua, engari i mua i te 500,000 tau ki mua, ka tīmata te tangata ki te whakamahi i te ahi mo te wera me te tunu kai.
I noho te tangata kākano hai kaiwhakangau, a, ko te nuinga o te wā, ko te āhua motuhake.
Ko te tere o te whakawhānuitanga o te āhua tangata ki Amerika ki te Raki me Oana i te kōruru o te tau hukapapa o mua tata nei.
I mahia e te Whānau Awa Kōwhai i Haina ētahi atu pū miro me ētahi atu hua pūroro, tata ki te 7000 BCE; i mua rā, neke atu i te 8000 BCE te riu o Yangtze.
Ko te mahinga konganuku, i whakamahia tuatahitia i te hanganga o ngā utauta kōpae me ngā whakapaipai huri noa i te 6000 BCE.
Ko nga taone nga pū o te hokohoko, o te mana mahi, me te mana tōrangapū.
He ōōwehe tonu te whanaketanga o nga tāone ki te pikinga o te iwi.
I hangaia e ēnei ahurea te wīra, te pāngarau, te mahi paranuku, te waka rererangi, te wīra a te kaihanga rihi, te kakahu raranga, te hanganga o nga whare tino nui, me te tuhituhi.
Ko te tikanga o te Neoliti he tikanga ki te koropiko ki nga tikanga angiangi.
I whāngaitia ēnei kāinga ki nga raorao o te awa mōmona: ko Ngā Mītihi me Uparati i Mehopotamia, ko te Raera ki Ihipa, ko nga Uri i roto i te urupa o Īnia, me ngā Awa Kōwhai i Haina.
I tīmata te tuhituhi pukapuka hei pūnaha whakaahua, a, i te mutunga ka whakamāmātia ōna whakaaturanga whakaahua, nui atu hoki te whakawaitara.
Na nga awa me nga moana i whakapai ake te waka.
Na ēnei whanaketanga i ahu mai ki te pikinga ake o nga whenua me nga kānga whānuitanga.
I Kariti te whenua i tae mai ki te Tau o Te Paranuku i te tau kotahi rau e 2700 BCE, a, e huaina ana ko ia te iwa tuatahi i Uropi.
I roto i te rautau e whai ake nei, ka tupu nga whakawhanaunga i te ao.
I Īnia, ko tēnei wā te wā Wairangi (1750-600 BCE), nāna i whakatakoto te kaupapa o te hū hindu me ētahi atu ahuatanga ahurea o te iwi o Mua Īnia, a, i whakamutua i te rau tau 6 o BCE.
I te wā o te wāhanga mātauranga i Mehaekerewa (tata ki te 1500 BCE ki te 500 CE), ka tīmata te whānuitanga o ngā whenua matatini, pūwaenga hoki, ko te nuinga o ngā mea ināianei ko Mehiko, Amerika Waewae, me Peru.
Kei roto hoki i te ariā Pakāne-Pakāne ā Tāhama te Whakataetae o Parēhia Zoroarianisma, engari e tautohetohe ana ētahi atu tohutohu ki tana rārangi wā mō to Zoroarianism.)
He ātaahua ēnei, he Ture, me te Pākehā.
I whakawhirinakitia nga rangatiratanga nui ki te whakangākau hōiatanga o te rohe, ki te whakatūnga o ngā kāinga tiaki hai pūnga ahuwhenua.
He maha nga kānga ā rohe i roto i tēnei wā.
I hoatu e te Emepara O waenganui ki ngā kāwanatanga o Ārapa ki rōtata, tae atu ki te Emepara Ohanga (550–330 BCE), te Emepara pāhiana (247 BCE–224 CE), me te Emeparaana o Sasaniana (224–651 CE).
Ā muri ake, ka hangaia e Arehanera Te Rahi (356–323 BCE), o Macedon, tētahi rangatiratanga o te raupatu, mai i Kariki o nāianei ki Īnia o nāianei.
Mai i te rau tau tua3 o te CE, ka tirohia e te tāpu pirihiwi o Pakāpoi te wā e kiia nei ko te Koroheke Koura o Īnia.
Na te pūmautanga e whai ake nei i āwhina ki te pūkōrero i te wā koura o te ahurea o Hindu i nga keneturie 4 me te 5.
Tae noa ki te wā o Aotearoa (63 BCE – 14 CE), te Emepara Rōmana tuatahi, kua whakatū kētia e Rōmana te rangatiratanga o te nuinga o te Māuirangi.
Ka hinga te emepatanga o te Uru, i te 476 CE e whitu tekau mā wha, ki te āhua o te Tiamana i raro i Odoacer.
He āhua rite te rangatiratanga o Ānana i te mana me te whakaawe ki te Rangatiratanga o Rōmana e takoto ana i tērā pito o te Ara o te Hiraka.
Pērā ki ētahi atu rangatiratanga i te Wā o te Puihi, he tino nui te arā atu o Han Haina i ngā wāhi o te kāwanatanga, te mātauranga, te pāngarau, te mātauranga, te hangarau, me ētahi atu tokomaha.
I whakatūria anō ngā kāinga ā rohe momoho ki Amerika, e ahu mai ana i nga ahurea i whakatūria i te wā tata tonu o te 2500 BCE.
I pōturi te piki o nga tūnga nui o Meiana i te tau me te ahurei, ā, ka hora puta noa i ngā wāhi o Hukatāna me ngā takiwā ahuwhānui.
Heoi anō, i ētahi rohe, he wā o te tere o te haerenga o te hangarau.
I te 220 CE o nga Kāri o Piritene, i tīmataria te wā o Ngā Kingitanga e Toru, i te wā o te Toru o nga Rangatiratanga o Te Rangatiratanga o te rangatiratanga o Rōmana, i te āhua kotahi tonu o te wā i mōhiotia nei ko te Pakeke o te Rau tau.
Na te whakawhanaketanga o te kōrupe me te kaha o te tāuri hoiho kia kaha rawa ai te mau i te kaikopere rāhui katoa i whakakino ai nga hūmārō ki nga iwi haumaru kē atu.
Ko te wāhi e toe ana o te Emepaea o Rōmana, i te rāwhiti o Te Māuiana, i noho tonu me te mea i kiia ko te Rangatiratanga o Paanatini.
Ko te nuinga o nga wa i tuhia mai i te rautau 5 o te hinganga o te Emepaea o Roma ki te hauauru, i wehewehea ki nga rangatiratanga maha, ko etahi o enei ka uru ki raro i te Emepaea Tapu o Roma.
I kite a Āhia ki te Tonga he rārangi rangatiratanga o waenganui o Īnia, i muri i te whakatūnga o nga rangatiratanga Ingarihi.
Nā tēnei i āhei ai a Awherika ki te hono atu ki te pūnaha mahi tauhokohoko o Āhia ki te Tonga-mā-ki-te-tonga, ka whakapā atu ki Āhia; ko tēnei, tae atu ki te ahurea o te Mohimana, i hua ai te ahurea O Swahili.
He pakanga ā iwi anō hoki tēnei, me te Ahurea a Pāntine Hellenistic me te Karaitiana e tautātau ana ki nga tikanga a Rakiana a Pahia me te hāhi o Zoroaria.
Mai i to rātau waenganui i Te Takiwhenua o Arapia, ka tīmata te roha o nga īmārihi i te Wā o mua o te Raraunga pāhihi.
Ka taea te hono te nuinga o tēnei akoranga me te whanaketanga ki te papawhenua.
He tino whakahirahira te whakaawetanga i pupuritia e nga kaihoko Amihipe-Arapi, a te Arapi-Āhia.
I whakahaua e te whakapono me ngā moemoka raupatu, ka whakarewaina e nga kaiārahi o Ūropi he maha o ngā Kōrerorero ki te ngana ki te whakahoki i te mana o te Mohimana, ki te whakahoki anō i te Whenua Tapu.
I whakamutua te whakahaerenga a Arāpia o te rohe i te waenganui o te rau tau 11 me te taenga mai o Te Koru-kākoru o Seljuq, e heke ana ki te tonga mai i ngā whenua kāinga o Pākihi ki Āhia Kiwa.
Ā muri ake ka karangatia te rohe ko Te Tairāwhiti, ā, ka kaihautū i ngā kaitiaki me ngā tūmataiti ka whakamahi i ngā tauranga maha o Awherika ki te Raki mō ā rātau poho ki ngā taone ā rohe o ngā whenua maha o Ūropi e hokona ana i ngā mākete o Awherika ki te Raki hei wāhi o te hokohoko kahunga pāpaku.
No te rau tau 8, ka tīmata te Islam ki te tomo atu ki te rohe, a, wawe tonu ka noho ko ia te whakapono kotahi o te nuinga o te iwi whānui, ahakoa i noho kaha tonu a Buddhism i te rawhiti.
I muri iho i te matenga o Genghis Khān i te tau 1227, ka noho te nuinga o Kiwa Āhia ki te whakakapi o te kāwanatanga, ko Katai Berry.
Kātahi ka wehewehea te rohe hei rangatū kano iti iho i hangaia e nga Uhupeka.
I hangaia e nga tautangata o rātau ake kāwanatanga hou ki nga toenga o te Kingi o Roma ki te Uru.
I whakawhānuitia te Karaitiana ki Ūropi ki te uru, a, ka whakatūria nga kararehe.
Ko te whānuitanga o ngā tāngata kāwanatanga ki ngā kāinga e utu ana i te utu me te mahi ki te hunga rangatira, me te tohetohetanga, he hanga tōrangapū, he kōkiri tōrangapū, he rangatira, e whiwhi ana i te ratonga ā iwi whānui ki a rātou mātāmua ki a rātau kāinga matua.
I kawea mai e nga kaihoko Itari he kahunga hai mahi i roto i nga whare, i te mahi huka rānei.
Na te matekai, te matekai, me te pakanga i whakararuraru te nuinga tangata o Ūropi ki te uru.
Na te matekai, te matekai, māku te pakanga i whakararuraru te nuinga tangata o Ūropi ki te uru.
I whakahaeretia e rātau te hokohoko awaawa-Pārihia ki te koura, te rei, te tote me nga kahunga.
I kite a Āwherika ki te whānautanga o ētahi kāwanatanga, tae atu ki te Kāwanatanga o Kongo.
I hangaia e rātau he hanga kohatu nui, kahore he moata pērā i a Zimbabwe Nui, te pū o te Rangatiratanga o Zimbabwe, o Te Kēmi, o te pū o Te Rangatiratanga o Butua, o Hīngombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), te pū o te Emepaea o Maravi.
I kite te iwa o nga rau tau i te Tautohe Takawaenga hei whakahaere i Īnia ki te raki, i waenganui o te Emepa o Pratihara, o te Emepatanga o Pala, me te Emepaea o Rashtrakuta.
"I te mutunga ka wehewehe te rangatiratanga o Te Tang, a, i muri i te hawhe rau, ka whakahangia anō e te rangatiratanga o te Waiata a Haina, i a ia e ai ki a William McNeill, te "whenua taonga rawa, tohunga rawa, me te nuinga o te whenua i runga i te whenua"."
I muri iho i te rau tau o te ture o te rangatiratanga o Mongol Yuan, ka whakapūtātia e te Hainamana i te rangatiratanga o Ming (1368).
Na te wā o te rau 8 o Te rau 8 i tohu te putanga mai o tētahi tūnga Hapanihi kaha, ā, ka whakaahuatia i te nuinga o te wā koura.
Ko te wā hurihanga o te hītori o Tiapanī, i whakahaeretia e nga rangatira ā rohe kaha (daimyos) me te rōpū ā iwi whawhai o nga kararehe tauwhawhai pērā i te huha a Ashikaga me ngā tute Tokumahi, i whārōtia mai i te 1185 ki te 1868.
I rerenga a Hiko Baekje i te 660, ā, Goguryeo i te 668, i tohu ai te tīmatanga o te wā ki te Raki me te Tonga (남북국시대), me te Pāki Whakakotahi i te tonga me Balhae, he āhua whakakapi ki Goguryeo, ki te raki.
Tīmata ana i te rau tau 9, ka tīmata te Kingitanga o Bagan ki te rongonui i a Myanmar o nāianei.
I hangaia e ngā Tupuna Puebloana me ō rātou tōmua (te rau 9 – tekau ma 13 ngā rau) ngā taunga pūmau whānui, tae atu ki ngā hanganga pōhatu ka noho tonu i ngā whare nui rawa atu i Amerika ki te Raki tae noa ki te rau tau 19.
I Amerika ki te Tonga, ka kite nga rau tekau ma 14 me te tekau ma 15 i te pikinga o Inca.
I whiwhi i te Whanaketanga Pūtaiao te ākitanga mai i te whakatakinga o Whaturangi ki Uropi o te tā, mā te momo neke, mai i te hanganga o te whātata me te karu whakarahi.
Ko te mutunga o te wa hou kei te haere tonu ki te mutunga o te Pakanga Tuarua o te Ao, i te tau 1945, ki tenei wa ranei.
I whakaahuatia te wā o mua o Nōnei e te pikinga o te pūtaiao, ā, na te nui haere o te tere o te haerenga o te hangarau, ki ngā tōrangapū tōpū ā iwi, me te āhua o te iwi.
I te wā o mua o te wā hōu, i taea e Uropi te whakahōu ake i tōna mana; Kai te taupatupatu tonu nga kaipūkōrero kōrero mo nga take.
Na te 1000 CE i whakawhanake ai tērā moni.
He pai ki a ia tētahi painga hangarau, a, he tohutohu nui i te whakaputa rino, i ngā taru kokeke, te hanganga arawhata whakatārewa, te tā, me te taputapu.
Kotahi tonu te ariā o te pikinga ake o Uropi ka whai wāhi nui te whai wāhitanga o te papawhenua o Uropi i roto i tōna angitu.
Na tēnei i whakararuraru a Uropi i te mate o nga whakaariki o Āhia.
Ko te Golden Age o Ihirama i mutu i te peke Mongol o Baghdad i te tau 1258.
I āwhina te papawhenua ki ngā rerekētanga nui ā papatawhiti.
He taumira, tata tonu te wehenga o Uropi ki te nuinga o nga tūnga whawhai.
Tata tonu ki nga hauā ahuwhenua katoa i whakawhāititia e o rātau taiao.
Na te mahi ā-ringa o te hokohoko, i āta whakawhāiti ake ai te hua o te mahi ā-hangarau me nga taonga whai hua.
Kaore i kitea ko te whakawhānuitanga moana o Uropi— i te wā o te papawhenua o te whenua—ko te mahi tūturu o ōna kōrero Atahangarangi: ko Potukara, Paniora, Ingarangi, wīwī, me Hōrana.
I Awherika ki te Raki, i noho tonu te Saadi Sultanate hei whenua motuhake Berber tae noa ki te tau 1659.
Ka whakapeka te rohe o Swahili i muri iho i te haerenga mai i raro i te Emepaea o Potukara, a, muri iho te Emepaea o Omani.
Na te Rangatiratanga o Āwherika ki te Tonga o Timutaihi i tuku i nga kingitanga iti iho pērā i Mutapa, i Butua, i te Maravi.
I roto i tēnei wā, ka hōhonu ētahi atu i ngā ihu i Āwherika.
I pā mai ki a Hāpana tōna wā Azuchi–Momoha (1568–1603), kātahi anō ka whāriki i te wā o Edo (1603–1868).
Ka noho ko te Kāhui Kīnaki o Te Rāwhiti, i whakawaengatia ki te tonga o Horonuku, te kaha o te tauhokohoko i te rohe.
I whakaekea a Ruhia ki te takutai hauauru o Amerika Te Taitokerau, me te koroni tuatahi i Alaska i tenei ra i te 1784, me te pou o Fort Ross i California inaianei i te 1812.
I tīmata te Hurihanga Mahi i Ingarangi Nui, a, i whakamahia ngā aratau hōu o te whakanao— te wheketere, te whakanao whānui, me te mekanunga—hei hanga tere ake i ngā hua whānui, he iti iho hoki te mahi i te mahi e hiahiatia ana i mua.
I muri iho i te whiwhinga o nga Ūropi i te mana me te whakahaere i ngā Amerika, ka huri nga ngohe emepaea ana ki ngā whenua o Āhia me Oana.
Kua whakanohoia hoki e Ingarangi nga whenua o Ahitereiria, a Aotearoa, a Awherika ki te Tonga, ā, he tokomaha nga whenua o Ingarangi e heke iho ana ki ēnei whenua.
I Uropi, i hangaia ai e ngā uaua o te ohaoha me ngā hōia tētahi pūnaha o ngā kāwanatanga iwi, ā, ka tīmata ngā whakarōpū ā-ringa ā-reo ki te kite i a rātau he iwi motuhake rānei me ngā hiahiatanga ahurea me te mana motuhake.
Ko ahau Uropi, i hangaia e ngā uaua o te ohaoha me ngā hōia tētahi pūnaha o ngā kāwanatanga iwi, ā, ka tīmata ngāā whakangā whakarōpū ā-ringa-reo te kite i a rātau he iwi motuhake rāānei ngāāhia ahurea me manahake.
Ko te nuinga o te ao i whakaawetia e nga iwi nui o Ūropi: ko Te Hononga o Amerika me Tiapana.
I ahu atu ahau ki te Pakanga o te Ao, ki te tīnga o nga kāwanatanga e whā – a Ateria-Hakari, te Emepaea Tiamana, te Emepaea o Wharaira, me te Emepaea o Rūhia – ā, ka whakaiti i a Kāwanatanga o Ingarangi me Wīwī.
Na te whakataetae tauwhāinga ā iwi, i hākinakina e te ngangau ā iwi o te Nuinga o te Taumahatanga Nui, i āwhina ki te whakahōu i te Pakanga Maha o te Ao.
I te mutunga nui o te Pakanga Makariri i te 1991 i muri i te Pikiniki o Pan-Ūropi, te takanga o muri o te Pihi Rino me te Pātū o Perewa, me te tianga o te Kaiahā ki te Rāwhiti me te Pātata Ronāka.
I nga tau tōmua o te wā o mua, ka toa nga whenua i Ahia, i Āwherika hoki o te Peretiana, o Ingarangi, hōni, wīwī, me ētahi atu emeperetanga o Ūropi ki te hauauru, ki to rātau tino rangatiratanga.
I hauā te mana o te Ingarangi o Ūropi i te whāeroerotanga o ōna tikanga ohaoha, o te tōrangapū, o te tōrangapū, e ōrite ana ki te taurangi o ngā rōpū o Te Hononga o Amerika i raro i ngā Tuhipānui Pārrongo i mua i te whakatamakitanga o te Kaupapa Ture o Amerika i te tau 1789.
I ngā nuinga tau i muri i te Pakanga Nui II, i āhei ēnei nekehanga ki te haere i ngā waka rererangi, ngā aorangi waihanga me ngā taupānga tē taea te tatau, tae atu ki te Pūnaha Tūnga Huri noa (GPS), me te Ipurangi.
Kua piki te whakataetae ao katoa mō ngā rauemi maori nā te tokomahatanga o te iwi me te mahi, i Īnia, i Haina, i Parīhi hoki.
Ko te pūranga he whakatōpūnga o ngā pūkete hītori – ki tētahi pāpāho – ki te pāpāho rānei, te pūtake ōkiko rānei kei reira.
"Kua whakaritea he kupu whakarite hei ""nga tūkinotanga o te rauropi", ā, ka wehewehea i ngā tuhinga kua tuhituhia, kua waihangatia rānei hei whakawhitiwhiti i tētahi karere ki te whānuitanga."
Ko te tikanga o tēnei he tino wehe ngā pūranga i ngā puna e pā ana ki ā rātou taumahi me ngā whakahaere, ahakoa ka kitea ngā kohinga pūranga i roto i ngā whare puna.
Kua kitea e nga kaimātaitai matapihi o ngā pūranga rau (ā i ētahi wā mano) o ngā paparorohiko uku hei hoki whakamuri ki te toru me te tuarua a manomano I roto i ngā pae pēnei i Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusa, Ugarit, me Pālosa.
Heoi, kua ngaro ratou, mai i te mea kua tuhituhi tuhinga ki runga i ngā rawa pēnei i te pepa, he tere kē atu te hekenga, kāore e ōrite ana ki o rātou hoa paparorohiko pōhatu.
Ingarangi i muri i te 1066 ngā pūranga whāngai me ngā tikanga rangahau pūranga.
Ahakoa he maha ngā momo pūranga, ko te tatauranga o ngā pūranga o nā tata nei i Te Hononga o Amerika e tohu ana e rima momo matua: mātauranga, umanga (mō te hua), kāwanatanga, kore hua, me ētahi atu.
Ko te āheitanga ki ngā kohinga o ēnei pūranga ko te wāhui o mua anake; Ko ētahi kua whakaritea he haora mo te mahi pātai.
Ko ngā tauira o ngā pūranga pakihi tūturu i Te Hononga o Amerika ko Coca-Cola (nāna hoki te whare taonga motuhake o Te Ao o Coca-Kola), o Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Services and Archives, and Levi Strauss & Co > Ka pupuri ēnei pūranga rangatōpū i ngā tuhinga hītori me ngā tūemi e pā ana ki te hītori me te whakahaeretanga o ā rātou kamupene.
Tērā pea kei ngā kaimahi i ēnei momo pūranga ētahi pahekotanga o ngā whakaakoranga me ngā waeine, mai i tētahi hītori, papamuri puna rānei.
I Te Hononga o Amerika, ka pupuritia e te National Archives and Records Administration (TT) ngā pūranga matua i te Takiwā o Koromoa, pākakā kāreti, o Tāpiripiri, me ngā pānga ā-rohe i tuaritia puta noa i Te Hononga o Amerika.
I Te UK, ko ngā Pūranga Ā-Motu (i mōhiotia i mua ko te Te Tari Pūkete Tūmatanui) te pūranga kāwanatanga mō Ingarangi me Weera.
Whakaurua, ko te rōrahi katoa o ngā pūranga i raro i te whakahaerenga o te Whakahaerenga Pūranga Wīwī te nui rawa o te ao.
Ko nga WhareAewatanga, ngā mītinihanga, me nga parekōrero e whai pūhihi ana i roto i nga Hāhi Katorika, Mihinare rānei.
I te nuinga o nga wā e whakawhirinaki ana ēnei rōpū ki te pūtea moni a te kāwanatanga me nga moni tūmataiti.
He maha nga whare taonga whai pūranga hai whakamatau i te mātauranga o rātau kongananga.
He whika motuhake tēnei i te 1.3% i kitea he mahi ā-tangata.
Ko te mātauranga o te pūranga ko te kohikohi i ngā pūrākau a nga wāhine e hiahia ana ki te whakapuaki i a rātau, me te hiahia kia rangona a rātau kōrero.
Ko ngā pūranga o tētahi whakahaere (pēnei i tētahi kaporeihana, kāwanatanga rānei) e pupuri ana i ētahi atu momo pūkete, pēnei i ngā kōnae whakahaere, ngā pūkete pakihi, ngā manatu, ngā tukutahi whai mana, me ngā meneti hui.
Ko te nui o ēnei koha kāore anō kia whakaputumōhiotia, engari ināianei kei te tiakina ā-mamatitia, e whakawāteatia ai ki te iwi whānui tuihono.
Ko ngā hoa ā aowhānui mō ngā pūranga ko te TEWHAKAMARO ME te Blue Shield International e ai ki te Aukati o Hague mō te Parenga o te Āhuatanga Ahurea mai i te 1954 me tōna Kawa tua2 mai i te 1999.
"Whārangi, Morgan M. "Kotahi mai i ngā Kupenga: Kotitihi, Uru, me te Hītori Whakawhiti-Kōrero.""
Ko tētahi tauira o tēnei ko te whakaahuatanga o Morgan M. Page mō te whakawhiti hītori transgender ki te whakawhiti i ngā tāngata mā ngā pāpāho pāpori me ngā pūhara whatunga pēnei i te tumblr, te Twitter, me te Instagram, tae atu ki te podcast.
"Mā ngā kōwhiringa e wātea ana mā te whakapūrua, ka taea te "whakamatau i ngā whānautanga tūturu o te hītori"" i te mea e kitea ana i roto i ngā pūranga o nāianei, e waihangatia ai he mokowā mō ngā kōrero kāore i roto i ngā rauemi pūranga maha."
He whakaahuatanga āhuatanga o te oranga tangata te āhuatanga o te āhua o te tākupu, te koiora noa rānei.
I te nuinga o te wā ehara i te kōrero, engari ka taea hoki te whakamahi i te kōrero hai whakaahua i te oranga tangata.
"Ko tētahi atu kohinga rongonui o nga haora onamata ko De vita Caesarum ("On the Lives of the Caesars") na Hutonu, i tuhituhia mo te AD 121 i te wā o te emepara o Harariana."
I whakamahia e ngā hermits, ngā monks, me ngā tohunga i tēnei wā whaikōrero hei tuhituhi i ngā kāwai.
Ko tētahi tauira tūturu o te kāwai o tēnei wā, ko te oranga o Haropia e tana Einhard, o tana kaihoko.
He maha ake ngā raraunga pāpori kei roto mō tētahi wāhanga nui o te iwi whānui i ētahi atu mahi o taua wā.
Nā ngā tōmuritanga o ngā Tau o Waenganui, ka iti iho te āhua o ngā hahi i Uropi hei kōrero mо̄ ngā kīngi, ngā poho, me nga tūroroa i tīmata te putanga mai.
I muri i te Māngai, ka whakanuia e te whakahāngai hou mo te āhuatanga tangata i te wā o te Huritua he arotahi ki ngā kaupapa o te ao, pēnei i ngā rehetoi me ngā kaitito, me te whakahau tuhituhi i roto i te kupu.
E mōhiotia ana ētahi atu whanaketanga e rua: ko te whanaketanga o te pēhi tā i te rau tau 15 me te nui o te pānui pukapuka pūkenga.
Ko tētahi ātaahua i te whakaahua i ngā whakatiputanga pōkākā, ko te Hītori Ahuwhānui o ngā Pirates (1724), nā Charles Hōnea, te pūtake tuatahi mo nga haora o nga kaitiaki rongonui maha.
I whakapuakina e Roia he tino nui nga ora o nga tangata nunui ki te mātau i te iwi me ōna rōpū.
He ahurei te mahi a Boswell i tōna taumata rangahau, arā ko te whakaakoranga pūranga, ngā pūkete me ngā uiui a te kanohi, tōna kōrero pakari me te ātaahua, me tōna whakaahuatanga pono i ngā āhuatanga katoa o te ora me te pūāhua o Hōnea – he tātai e taunakitia ana hei take o ngā tuhinga kāwai mō tēnei rā.
Heoi anō, he tere te tere o te tupu o te tau o ngā āhuatanga o ngā āhuatanga o te tā, he mihi ki te whakawhānui i te pānui iwi whānui.
Kua tīmata ngā āhuatanga i te whakaputa i tētahi raupapa o ngā tātuhi ā-ā-papa.
Ko ngā āhuatanga o ngā mahi a te "Tākorotanga"" i whakahaeretia ki ngā mahi a rātou kaupapa he hua nō te taiao, ā, i whakaitia te tūmomo."
I ngaro atu nga ariā aronga ahuwhānui o nga toa me nga kōrero o te angitu i roto i te manaakitanga ā-hinengaro.
"Tae noa ki tēnei wā, i kōrerotia eParei i roto i te kōrero tuatahi, he "mōhiotia" ngā kāwai o Rōpū ā-Rōrai me te āhua o te tangata māngai", ā, i mau i te hau kotahi o te ""pōturi, whakahaurangi paepae.""
I tutuki te rongonui o te pukapuka puta noa i te ao nā tōna kāhua tōkeke, atamai, tōna āhua hāngai me te pono, me tōna poro ā-tuhi.
I tū atu a "Robert Graves (ko au, Claudius, 1934) i waenganui i ērā i muri i te tauira a Paneke o ""te whakarerekē i ngā haora ā-roto.""
Na te Pakanga Nui I, kua kaingākautia nga tānga taumārō.
Tae atu ki ngā kōrero tuhituhinga pakeke, he nui nga rīpene i hangaia e Karauti, he nui tonu nga kōrero arumoni i runga anō i nga oranga rongonui.
Kāore i te ōrite ki ngā pukapuka me ngā whitiāhua, kāore rātou e kōrero ki tētahi kōrero o te wā o te wā: he pūranga kē rātou o ngā huānga pāpāho kōpae e pā ana ki tētahi tangata, tae atu ki ngā topenga ataata, whakaahua, me ngā tuhipānui kuputuhi.
Ko ngā tohutohu "tuhi ora"Ahuwhānui he kaupapa mātauranga ā-tohunga."
"Tērā pea ka puta mai te mōhiohio i "te hītori waha", i ngā kōrero whaiaro, te tākupu me te karere pukapuka tangata" te "mau pukapuka, ngā reta, te memoranda me ētahi atu mea"."
No te ika 9 me te tekau ma 10 nga rau o nga rārangi o Ūropi, i muri mai i te hinganga o te Emepera o Carolingian, ka whakawehea tōna rohe ki nga rangatira, o ia rangatira.
I whakamahia ngā whare kīngi taone hei whakahaere i ngā whānui ā iwi, i ngā ara rererangi hira, i te nuinga o ngā whare kīngi taone e noho tata ana ki ngā āhuahira tōpua i roto i te iwi, pēnei i ngā mira, i te whenua mōmona, i tētahi pūtake wai rānei.
I te tōmuri o te tekau mā 12 me te hōmua o nga rau tau 13, ka puta mai tētahi hua pūtaiao ki te whawhati kāhui pā.
I whakaritea ēnei huringa i te pānuitanga o te hangarau pārekarena mai i ngā Taumaha, pēnei i te pānga whakawhāiti, me te whakaahuatanga mai i nga pā o mua, pērā i nga pā o Rōmana.
Ahakoa i whakamōhiotia te paura ki Uropi i te rau tau 14, kāore i tino pā ki te whare pātītī tae noa ki te rau tau-15, i te kaha o te āhua o te pū ā iwi ki te wāhi pōhatu.
Ko te feudalism te hononga i waenganui i tētahi ariki me tōna matenui i reira, hei hokinga mo te ratonga ā iwi whawhai me ngā tūmanakotanga o te pono, ka homai e te Ariki te whenua māhorahora.
I mahi nga whare pākihi i te āhuatanga o nga take, ko te mea tino nui rawa atu he hōia, he kaiwhakahaere, me te ā-whare.
I a Ia e hōhonu ana a William te Kairaupatu puta noa i Ingarangi, ka kaha i a ia nga tūnga matua hai whakamaru i te whenua i tangohia e ia.
Ka taea e te whare pāra te mahi hei pā, he whare herehere, engari he wāhi anō ka āhei te kōwae, te ariki rānei ki te whakangahau i tōna hoa.
I ngā wāhanga rerekē o te ao, i tiria e ngā hanganga tairitenga ngā āhuahira o te pā āhuatanga tautuhi me ētahi atu āhuatanga tautuhi e pā ana ki te ariā o te pā, ahakoa i takea mai i roto i ngā wā me ngā āhuatanga rerekē, ā, he rerekē ngā mahinga.
Tae noa ki te rau tau 16, i te tūtakinga o nga tikanga ā-Hapanihi me Ūropi, kua neke atu te taumarutanga i Ūropi ki tua atu i nga whare whetū, kua whakawhirinaki ki ngā mahi hou pērā i te whakataki a itarangi me ngā pā whetū.
Na te keri whenua i waiho ai e te puke he waipuke huri noa i te kōti, e kīia ana he mota (tērā pea he mākū, he maroke rānei).
He āhuatanga noa iho tērā o nga pārae, a, kotahi neke atu i te iti rawa te kotahi.
Na te poka, te puna rānei i homai he wai.
Ahakoa e pāhono ana ki te momo pāremata rōpū moe me te rangitahi, ka kitea hoki ngā rangirangi hei hanganga tohuāki motuhake.
Ehara i te mea i whakamahia te "Puritia"" i te wā o mua – i hoatutia te wā o mua mai i te rau tau 16 ki muri – i whakamahia kētia te ""donjon"" ki te pānui i ngā pourewa nunui, i te turris rānei i Rātini."
Ahakoa i te nuinga o te wā, ko te wāhi tino kaha o te pāhi me te wāhi whakarurutanga whakamutunga mehemea ka taka nga kaiawhai i waho, kāore i mahue te pupuri i te wāhi kōkiri, engari i whakamahia hei whare e te ariki nāna te pāhi, ōna manuhiri, māngai rānei.
Na nga hīkoi i runga i nga tihi o nga pakitara ārai ka whakaaetia e nga kaiwawao he ārai marangai i runga i nga hoariri i raro nei, a, ka āraia anō rātau e nga whawhai.
He wāhi matapo te matapo o mua o te tomokanga, a, ka taea te whakatata, i tāpiritia he pourewa whakaata i ia taha o te kuwaha i runga i te kāhua e rite ana ki tā te Rōmana i hangaia.
I whakaroatia te haere puta noa i te whare kēti hai whakanui ake i te wā i pau ai te kaiuruhi i raro i te ahi i roto i te mokowā taka noa, a, kaore e taea te whakautu.
I te nuinga o te wā ka whakamahia rātau ki te whakataka i ngā kaihōia, ki te whakaae rānei kia ringihia he wai ki runga i te ahi hei whakaweto.
Ka taea te tāpiri i tētahi tūwheratanga whakapae iti iho hei hoatu tirohanga pai ake mō te whāinga.
I takea mai ngā pā o mua i te Pewa Tōka, te Riu o Indus, o Īhipa, me Haina i rāhuitia ai ngā kāinga e nga pātū nunui.
He maha nga māngai whenua e ora ana i tēnei rā, tae noa ki nga whakaaturanga o nga tīwatawata hai haere i nga waikeri.
Ahakoa he omua rātau, he mahi tika noa iho rātau, a, i pāngia noa iho e te whakamahinga whānui o ngā pūkaha whakapae me ētahi atu pūkenga whawhai whakapae, pēnei i te Pakanga o Alesia.
Ko te tikanga kua takeatia e nga kōrero te pikinga o te pāra ki te tauhohenga o nga whakaekenga a Magāka, a te Hunga Mohimana, o ngā Kānara, me ngā hiahiatanga o te whakamaru tūmataiti.
Ko ētahi whakamau teitei o nga pārae e taka ana ki ngā wāhi haumaru, ahakoa iti noa iho nga pārae o ētahi rohe taitapa.
Ko te hanganga i te hōro ki rō pōhatu, kāore i āraitia ki te ahi, i te mea he matapihi tonu me te tatau rākau.
Ehara i te mea ko nga pāpapa anake te whakahauhau, engari i whakarei ake hoki te mana o te ariki ki ōna whenua.
I te tau 864 ka opani te Kingi o West Francia, a Charles the Bald, ki te hanga castella me te kore tana whakaaetanga, ka whakahau kia whakangaromia katoatia.
He tino mōrearea te take o Huiterangi, kaore he mana tūnga mo te tangata i hanga whare pārae, a, ko te hua e 4,000 i te whenua.
I te 950 o ngā Tūtohu ko te kāinga ki ngā pārae kotahi mano e 12, neke atu i te 1000 tēnei whika ki te 30, a, neke atu i te 1030 neke atu i te 100.
I te omua o te rau tau-11, te rīpene me te pupuri – he pukepuke uri me te taumaihi ki runga – ko te hanga pārae tino noa iho i Uropi, i ngā wāhi katoa hāunga a Tākanainaina.
Ahakoa he ngātahi te hanganga pōhatu ā muri ake nei, mai i te rau tau 11, kātahi anō ka waihangatia mō ngā whare matua mō ngā pānuitanga Karaitiana i Paniora, i taua wā tonu ko ngā rākau tino ātaahua i Uropi ki te raki.
I mua i ngā pānuitanga o te rau tau 12 i waiho i Tenemaka, he rite tonu ki a rātau i Ingarangi i mua i te Taunga a Hāmoa.
I hōritetia e to rātau whakapaipai he hoahoa ā-Romana, ā, i ētahi wā, ka whakaurua he matapihi taurua e rite ana ki ērā e kitea ana i nga pourewa pere o te whare karakia.
Ahakoa i whakawhititia e o rātau kaiwhakawhiwhi pōhatu, kaore he tikanga kore take o nga whare rākau me nga whare mahi whenua.
Tae noa ki te tōmuritanga o nga pourewa 12, he ruarua noa iho nga pourewa o te rau tau; he waharoa whai āhuahira tohuāki ruarua pēnei i ngā pae pere, i tētahi tauranga rānei; he mahi nui, te donjon rānei, ko te nuinga o te tapawhā me te kore ngā kōkuhu; ā, ko te āhua i whakakōrerotia e te takotoranga o te whenua (ko te hua he rite tonu te whakahekeheke, te hanga ranei o te rarangirangi).
Ko nga pourewa e ārai mai i nga pakitara, ā, ko ngā pae pere i runga i ia taumata kia tuku i ngā kaikopere kia ū ki tētahi tangata e tata ana, i te taiepa ārai rānei.
I ngā wāhi noho tonu, kaore tonu rātau i te tapawhā, engari he tapamaha, he porotakaroa rānei.
Tērā pea i tupu i te rau tau-tua12, na nga pourewa i homai he ahi hope.
Metemea nei he nui nga mea i ako nga Tātauranga Moana ki te pā mai i o rātau papā ki nga Rīha me te mārakerake ki ngā hoahoa o te Tāwhina.
I whakawāteatia nga mātauranga o Hemi o Hato Hori, he mea whakamātau, no Hato Hori ia i haere mai i Hato Hore-d'Espéranche, i Wīwī.
"I mōhio, i whakaawea e te hoahoa o Rōmana nga kaihanga o Ūropi ki te Uru; I whakamahia anōtia ngā pā ākau o Rōmana tōmuri i runga i te reo Ingarihi ""Ākau", ā, i Paniora te taiapa i te taone huri noa i te taone o Ávila i whakataurite i te hanganga i te tau kotahi mano 1091."
He tauira o tēnei huarahi ko Kerak.
Ko nga pārae i whakaūria e rātau hei whakaū i o rātau whiwhinga, i hangaia nuitia e nga kaimahi matua o Hiriani.
Ahakoa i whakamahia nga pāra hai pupuri i tētahi pae, hei whakahaere i nga ope taua, i mahue ētahi tūnga matua i te whenua Tapu.
Kāore te hoahoa i te rerekē i waenganui i ngā whakahau anake, engari i waenganui i ia pārae, ahakoa he mea noa iho ki te hunga i hāngai i tēnei wā ki te whai pānuitanga.
Mehemea ka whakaekea e nga kaihōia te rārangi patu tuatahi ka mau rātau ki te whenua patu i waenganui i nga pakitara o roto me waho, ā, ka whakaekea te pātū tuarua.
Hei tauira, he mea noa iho i nga whare kingi o Tātauira te whakawhiwhi i te kēti matua i te taha o tētahi pourewa, kia rua hoki nga huringa i te huarahi, e whakaroa ana i te wā ka tae atu te tangata ki te pātaka o waho.
Ahakoa he rau nga whare rākau i Purihia, i Iakoia, kāore i te mōhiotia te whakamahinga o nga pereki me te moata i te rohe i te aroaro o nga Rūana.
Kāore i whakararurarutia e ngā pae pere te kaha o te pakitara, engari kāore i taea noatia te kaupapa whare pārae a Ōteera i whānuitia ai rātau ki Uropi.
Ahakoa i rite tonu te whakatutukitanga o nga whakawaiwai rākau ki nga whakarākei rākau, tērā pea he hanga hanganga ki te Rāwhiti, ehara i te whakawhitiwhiti i te hanga rākau.
Na te papā me te tauwhitinga i waenganui i ngā rōpū e rua i whakawhiti whakaaro hangahanga, ā, ka whāngaia e ngā Karaitiana Pāniora te whakamahinga o nga pourewa motuwhā.
"I tuhituhi te kaipānui pukapuka o Wīwī François Gebelin: "I arahina te whakahauhau nui i roto i nga hoa whawhai, i rite ki ta te tangata i tūmanako ai, na nga kingi nui me nga rangatira o taua wā; na nga tama a William Kairauporo ratou ko o ratou uri, ko nga Punirangi, i to ratou rironga hei ariki no Normandy."
I te nuinga o te wā, he māmā ake nga whare hanga hou i nga hanganga o mua, a, torutoru noa iho nga mahi hou, ahakoa i hangaia tonutia ngā pae kaha pērā ki a Raglan i Weera.
He taumaha rawa ēnei pū ki te tangata hei mau, he ahi, engari mehemea i tautokona e ia te pito o te papa, a, ka whakaoratia te moka ki te tapa o te tauranga pū, ka taea e ia te ahi te patu.
Ka kitea tēnei urutaunga puta noa i Uropi, ā, ahakoa āhua kore nei e ora ana te rākau, he tauira tika tonu kei Pāniana Doorn mutunga mai i Hōrana.
Ko ētahi atu momo tauranga, ahakoa he iti iho te pūnoa, ko ngā kōnae whakapae – e whakaae ana ki ngā nekehanga lateral anake - me ngā tūwheratanga tapawhārite nui, ka whakaaetia te nekehanga nui ake.
He tauira a Hama mo te au mo nga whare hou hei whakarawe i nga āhuatanga o mua, pēnei i nga tiwha, i nga pourewa tiketike, i nga tio.
I roto i tētahi mahi kia nui ake te mātauranga, ka rahi ake ngā pū, ahakoa i whakakōpūtia e tēnei to rātau kaha ki te tae ki nga whare mamao.
Ahakoa i tika tēnei mō ngā whare hōu, i kimihia e nga hanganga o mua tēnei he huarahi mo te wera i te patupatu a te pū repo.
He rongoā ki tēnei he whakararo i te tihi o te pourewa, ki te whakakī i te wāhi o raro ki ngā ururua hei whakarato i te mata mo nga pū ki te ahi.
Mai i enei papu whetu i whanakehia, e mohiotia ana ko te tohu italienne.
Ko te whiringa tuarua i rongonui ake i te mea kua kitea he iti noa te waahi ki te tarai kia tino paruru te papaanga i te aroaro o te pu.
Ko ētahi pārae pono i hangaia ki Amerika e nga pāniora me te Wīwī.
I waenganui i ētahi atu hanganga tohuāki (tae noa ki ngā pā me ngā toi), i hangaia hoki ngā pātītī ki Hōu Wīwī a tae noa ki te mutunga o te rau tau 17.
Ko te whare rangatira me nga paa i roto i te bailea pakari, me te hiero porowhita teitei i ia kokonga.
Ahakoa i mangu te hanganga o te whare rangatira i te mutunga o te rautau 16, kaore nga whare rangatira i taka katoa ki te mahi.
I etahi atu keehi he kaha tonu ta raatau ki te tiaki.
I nga pakanga i muri mai, penei i te Pakanga Tangata Ingarihi (1641-1651), he maha nga whare rangatira i whakatikatikahia, ahakoa i muri ka whakaitihia kia kore e whakamahia ano.
Ko te whakaohooho, ko nga whare whakahianga ranei, i rongonui hei whakaatu i te hiahia Romana i nga tau o waenga me te reanga, me te waahanga o te Whakaputanga Gothic whanui i roto i te hoahoanga.
Koia tēnei nā te pono ki te hoahoa o te wā o mua ka mahue i nga whare kia mātao, i te pouri hoki i nga paerewa o nāianei.
He ōrite nga waiwai, ahakoa i rerekē rātau i nga horohoro tinihanga i te mea ehara rātau i te wāhanga o tētahi whenua i whakaritea, engari ki te āhua nei kāore he take i hangaia ai.
Tērā pea i hangaia e tētahi kaimahi hakore he kāniwha whenua, he rīpene, he patu rākau me nga whare.
Ka rerekē te utu mo te hanga whare pāra e ai ki ngā take pērā i te mōrearea me te utu mo te kawenga mō te rawa.
I waenganui he whare pērā ki Orford, i hangaia i te tōmuritanga o te rau tau 12 mō UK£1,400, ā, i te pito o runga, pērā i a Whakarewa, tērā utu mo UK£7,000 i waenganui i te 1181 me te 1191.
Ko te utu mo te whare nui i hangaia i tenei waa (mai i UK £ 1,000 ki UK £ 10,000) ka whiwhi moni mai i etahi rangatira, ka tino pa ki nga putea a te rangatira.
Ko nga miihini tawhito me nga mahi hanga, penei i te warouira treadwheel, i tino hiahiatia i te wa o te hangahanga, me nga tikanga hanga rakau whakahoahoa rakau i whakapaihia mai i nga ra o nehe.
He maha nga whenua e whai rakau ana me nga whare kohatu, engari he iti noa nga waahi a Denmark ana ko te mutunga ko te nuinga o nga keehi he take whenua me nga rakau, no muri ka hangaia mai i te pereki.
Hei tauira, i te hanganga o Tattershall Castle i waenganui i te 1430 me te 1450, he maha ngā pōhatu e wātea tūtata ana, engari i kōwhiria e te Lord Cromwell, te rangatira, ki te whakamahi pereki.
I whakawhirinaki a ia ki te tautoko a ērā i raro i a ia, me te mea kaore te tautoko a tana kaimahi kaha ake i tūmanako ai te ariki kia tūkinotia tōna mana.
E pa ana tenei ki nga rangatira, no etahi whenua nga whenua i etahi wa.
Ko nga whare rangatira he rite tonu te ahua ki nga whare rangatira, ahakoa i te rahinga nui noa atu me nga mana i rongonui ake.
I te mea ko nga whare rangatira o nga whare rangatira nga waahi nui hei whakaaturanga.
Kua whakaritea nga whare pārae ki nga whare karekare hai ahanoa whakakake, ā, ko ētahi pārae i whakaurua he māra hai āhuahira whakapaipai.
Ko te aroha ā kōti te whakaoatitanga o te aroha i waenganui i te mātaotanga.
Ko te poutohu o Tirihita me Iseult tētahi tauira o nga kōrero mo te aroha whakawa e kōrerotia ana i nga Wā o Waenganui.
Ko te tikanga o te mārenatanga i waenganui i nga rōpū hōro hai whakamaruru i te whenua.
Ka tirohia e au te whakaahua o te pārena mo te whare taua, te kohinga o nga pārae i Ingarangi, France, Ireland, me Scotland kaore i uru atu ki nga pakanga me nga whakapae, no reira ko te oranga o te kaainga te mea e warewarehia ana.
Hei tauira, he maha nga pārae kai te tata ki nga ara Rōmana, e noho ana i ngā ara hira o ngā Pakeke o Waenganui, ka taea rānei te whakarerekētanga, te waihanga rānei o ngā pūnaha huarahi hōu i taua rohe.
He nui rawa ngā pārae taone ki te whakahaere i ngā pūtake o te iwi whānui me te whakanaotanga, i te nuinga o te whakaariki, hei tauira i muri mai i te Taeatanga Nо̄mana o Ingarangi i te rau tau 11 i hangaia te nuinga o ngā whare kīngi ki roto, pātata rānei ki ngā taone.
I pāhonotia ngā pānui ā-taiwhenua ki nga mira, ki ngā pūnaha āpure, nā tā rātou mahi ki te whakahaere i te pānga o te ariki, nāna rātou i āwhina nui ake ki nga rawa.
Ehara i te mātauranga noa iho rātou i whakaū i te wai me te ika hou, engari he tohu tūnga rātou ki te utu nui ki te hanga me te tiaki.
Ko nga painga o te hanga whare rangatira i runga i nga whakataunga kaore i herea ki a Europe anake.
Ka āhei hoki ngā kāinga kia tipu noa iho i tētahi pāhi, ehara i te mea e whakaritea ana, nā ngā painga o te tatanga ki tētahi pū o te ohu i tētahi whenua ā-taiwhenua me te haumarutanga i homai e nga pare.
I te nuinga o te wā e noho tata ana rātau ki ētahi atu parenga taone tīariari, pērā i ngā pātū o Rōmana, ahakoa i ētahi wā ka puta tēnei i te wawaenga o nga hanganga e noho ana i te pae e hiahiatia ana.
I te whakaekenga o nga Norman i Ireland, Scotland, me Wales i nga rautau 11 me te 12, ko te noho ki era whenua te nuinga kaore i te taone nui, ana ko te turanga o nga taone i honoa ki te hanganga o tetahi whare rangatira.
I whakaatu tēnei i tētahi pātahitanga tata i waenganui i nga rangatira tohetohe me te Hahi, ko tētahi o nga rōpū tino hira o te iwi o te whenua o te wā o te whenua.
Ko tētahi atu tauira, no te Rākau O Bodiam Castle o te rau 14, i Ingarangi ano hoki; ahakoa te āhua nei he āhua o te toi, he kāwanatanga arā atu anō kei tētahi wāhi iti rawa te hiranga o te rautaki, a, he pāpaku te moatā, ā, ko te tikanga kia ātaahua te pae i te ātaahua i te pare ki te karikari.
He nui te utu o te Garrisons a ko te mutunga he iti noa iho te kore he mea nui te whare rangatira.
I te tau o te 1403, i angitu o nga kaikopere e 37, i āta āraia a Caernarfon Castle ki ngā tūkinotanga e rua a nga kaiurunga o Owain Glyndŵr i te wā o te whakapae roa, e whakaatu ana ka taea te mahi tētahi tōpana iti.
I raro i a ia, ko nga kōrearea e whai hua ana i a rātau whakangungu hōia, i whakaritea hai momo karaehe āpiha.
He pai ake te mate kai i te hoia kei tua atu i te whakaeke, otira mo nga waahi tino kaha ki te parea.
Ka āhei te āwhiu roa ki te whakaiti i te taua, e āhei ai te āwhina ki te haere mai, ki te hoariri rānei ki te whakarite i tētahi tōpana nui ake mo tētahi wā.
Ki te takoha ki te patu i te whare rangatira, he nui nga kōwhiringa e wātea ana ki nga kaihōia.
Ko te trebuchet, i ahu mai pea mai i te petraria i te rautau 13, ko te patu whakapainga tino whai hua i mua i te whakawhanaketanga o nga pu.
Ko te ballistas, te springalds rānei he pūkaha whakapāpōkā i mahi i runga i ngā tikanga ōrite ki ngā pūpoaka whakawhitiwhiti.
He nui ake te mahi i whakamahia ai rātau ki nga hoia pupuri, tēnā i nga whare o te whare nui.
Ka karia tōku ahu atu ki te pakitara, ā, ka tae ki te ūnga, ka tautokona e te rākau te āraitanga o te kauhanga kia kore ai e tiango.
Ka taea te keria te kaihoko ki te kauhanga a te kauhanga whakapae; na te whakaaro i ūngutu ai nga mea e rua, ka puta tēnei i te riri ā ringa-ki-raro.
I whakamahia rātau hai whakatuwhera i nga kuwaha Whare Nui, ahakoa i ētahi wā he iti te pānga o te whakamahinga ki nga pakitara.
He kōwhiringa haumaru ake mō ērā e whakaeke ana i te Whare Nui ko te whakamahi i tētahi pourewa whakapae, i ētahi wā e kiia ana he karekau.
Ko nga pānga o te kingitanga, o ngā pānga e toru rānei, ko nga whakahau whānui o te aroākapa pāpori i whakamahia ki NgāMememe (Christian Europe) mai i ngā Wā o Waenganui ki Uropi o mua.
I roto i te ariki ko te kingi raua ko te kuini, i te wā i hangaia te pūnaha hei minita( te Tuatahi Pānga), he rangatira (Pānga Tuarua), he tāpua, he ruaheke (Pānga Tuatoru).
I England, i hurihia e tētahi pūnaha pānga-rua tērā te whakakotahitanga o ngā tūturu me ngā minita hei pānga rangatira kotahi me te "whanaunga, hei pānga tuarua."
I Scotland, ko nga Pānga Toru ko nga Minita (Emepa Tuatahi), Ko te Tūranga Tuarua, ko nga Komihana Shire, ko ngā Komihana Shire rānei, ko te "pūtātua" (Pānga Tuatoru), e tohu ana i te paraheke, te karaehe waenganui, me te karaehe i raro iho.
I te mea kaore i taea e nga minita te mārena, ko taua kawenga ā-ariā i whakawhāititia ki te whakatipuranga kotahi.
Huizinga Te Maama o te Waenganui (1919, 1924: 47).
I kiia te iwi whanui ko te ture iti rawa.
I roto i nga rohe maha me nga ao kei reira ano etahi roopu taupori i whanau i waho atu o enei whenua noho motuhake.
Ko te huringa ohaoha me te taha torangapu o te tuawhenua i te waa kua ki i te tipu nui o te taupori, mahi ahuwhenua, hangarau hou me nga taone nui taone nui; ko nga nekehanga o te whakahoutanga me te whakahoutanga i ngana ki te whakakoi i te wehewehe i waenga i te mana o te pirihimana me te rangatiratanga, me te mana, e mohiotia ana e te Hahi i whai hua ano hoki.
Ko te ota tuarua, ko era e whawhai ana, ko te rangatira o te hunga torangapu, hao, me te morearea.
Hei taapiri, ko nga Wahanga Tuatahi me te Tuarua i whakawhirinaki ki nga mahi a te tuatoru, na te mea i iti ake ai te ahua o muri.
Ko te nuinga i whanau mai i roto i tenei roopu a i mate ano hoki tetahi waahanga.
I te Mei 1776, ka peia te Minita Putea a Turgot, whai muri i tana kore whakatuu i nga mahi whakahounga.
I te kore e taea e ia te whakakii i a ratau ki te hiiri i tana 'kaupapa tino pai', ka tono a Louis XVI ki te whakakore i te Estates-General, engari ko te Tuatoru nga Whenua i tohaina mo o raatau tika ki te tuunga.
I te mea he haumaruru te Parliament o Scotland, ka noho nga mema katoa ki taua ruma kotahi, he mea whakaaro ki te English House motuhake o Lords, o House o Commons.
Ka rite ki Ingarangi, te Paremata o Ireland i ahu mai i te Magnum Concilium "runanga nui" "i karangahia e te rangatira nui o Ireland, i tae atu te kaunihera (curia regis), nga rangatira (rangatira feudal), me nga perehitini (episekopo me nga tohunga. ). "
I te tau kotahi tekau mā iwa rau e 1297, ko ngā kaunihera i whakaaturia tuatahitia e ngā kōrearea o te pōtiro (i whakaaturia i mua e nga sheriffs ērā).
He tāngata wātea ia tangata, he mana motuhake, he mana hoki ki te tono i nga māngai ki Riksdag o nga Pānga.
I mua i te rau tau e 18, ka whai mana te Kīngi ki te pōti whakatau mehemea i āta wehewehea nga Pānga.
Heoi anō, i muri i te Kai o Porvoo, i tahuri anō te Kai o Finland i te tau kotahi mano e 1863 anake.
Neke atu i te 1400, i whakaurua he ārai pū, i te tau 1561 i tāpirihia ngā rārangi Tatau me te Whakaraupapa, ā, i te tau 1625 i whakakotahitia te Whare o Nō ake hei Tauranga Tuatahi o te whenua.
Ko nga upoko o nga whare rangatira he wahi tuku iho no te whakaminenga o nga rangatira.
Na tēnei i puta ai te āhuatanga tōrangapū nui mo te hākeitanga.
I nga rau tau ki muri, ka whakauru nga pānga ki nga kaiako o nga wānanga me ētahi kura kāwanatanga.
I whakaaetia anake te mahi i roto i nga tāone i te whiwhinga o runga o nga ariā tohu atawhai, ā, he mana tāuke to nga kaihūrau ki te whakahaere i te tauhokohoko i roto i te anga o nga whare ārai.
Kia noho ai he taone hei tāone, ka hiahiatia he mākete tāpae nā te ariki mākete, ā, e hiahiatia ana e te hokohoko ā-kāinga he mana tēpara tāpae.
I te mea he whānau kaiahuwhenua tonu te nuinga o te nuinga, tae noa ki te rau tau 19, ehara i te ngā wheori, i te werawe rānei, he nui te rerekētanga o te tikanga i whakaritea ki ētahi atu whenua o Ūropi.
I pōtitia noatia o rātau māngai ki te Kai: i tonoa e ia māngai ki te kōwhiri i te māngai o tētahi rohe pōti.
Kaore a rātau motika tōrangapū, a, kaore i taea te pōti.
I Huitene, i tīari te Riksdag o nga Pānga tae noa ki te wā ka whakakapia ki tētahi ruru Riksdag i te tau kotahi mano, i 1866, nāna i tuku mōtika tōrangapū ki tētahi tangata whai moni, āhuatanga rānei.
I Finland, i tīari tēnei wehenga ture tae noa ki te tau 1906, e tātuhi tonu ana ki te kaupapa ture o Huitene i te tau 1772.
Waihoki, ko nga kaimahi mahi ngarahu e noho ana i te taone, kaore i whakaaturia e te pūnaha pānga whā.
Nō te ke 15 me te 16 o nga rau tau Brussels ka noho ko te wāhi i huihui ai te Tianara o Amerika.
Na te Ūniana o Utretahi i te tau 1579 me ngā takahanga i muri mai, ka kī te Āhuwhānui o Amerika kua kore tonu rātau e whakarongo ki a Kingi Piripi II o Paniora, i noho rangatira hoki ia ki Netherlands.
Ko te taumata o te kāwanatanga i whiwhi ai nga mea katoa ki nga kawanatanga e whitu i noho hei wāhi o te Republic o nga United Netherlands.
I te tonga o Netherlands, ko nga hui whakamutunga a te Ahuwhānui o Amerika i tūkinotia ki nga Habsburgs i te Ahuwhānui o Te Whenua Tauwhāinga o te tau 1600 me te Ahuwhānui o Nga Pānga Nui o te tau 1632.
Kua kore tonu e whai mana o ngā Whenua, ko nga Pānga anake: i whakaarotia kia ōrite nga tangata katoa i raro i te Ture kotahi mano e 1798.
I te tau 1815, i te whakakotahitanga o Netherlands me Belgium me Hiramihi, ka wehea nga Wāhi Whānui o Amerika ki ngā ruma e rua: ko te Ruma Tuatahi me te Ruma Tuarua.
Mai i 1848, ko tā te Kaupapa Ture o Tūturu e whakarato ana kia pōtitia e te iwi ngā mema o te Ruma Tuarua (i te tuatahi e tētahi wāhanga iti o te iwi whāiti; tērā te tāne me te wahine mana whirinaki mai i te tau 1919), i te wā e kōwhiria ana ngā mema o te Taiwhanga Tuatahi e ngā mema o te Rohe Whenua.
Ko te minita he kanohi na te rangatira bishops, rangatira archbishops me rangatira abbots o ngā whare monatere maha.
He tokomaha nga tāngata i noho motuhake ōna rohe i roto i te Emepera o Roma Tapu mo nga rau tau, kaore he māngai o te Kārewa o te Emepa, a, ko nga Kōroa o Emepera, ko nga kāinga takitahi.
Ko nga whenua nui e wha: rangatira (dvoryanstvo), minita, tangata noho tuawhenua, me nga taone noho taone, me te kiko o nga korero e whai kiko ana.
Ko te bourgeoisie i roto i tona ahuatanga taketake e hono piri ana ki te taone nui o nga taone, e mohiotia ana e a raatau mahere taone (hei tauira, nga mahere o te taone, nga painga o te taone, te ture taone Tiamana), no reira kaore he bourgeoisie i tua atu i te tangata whenua o nga taone.
I roto i nga korero o mua, ko te kupu Bourgeois no te Wiwi wharekarakia te tohu i nga kainoho o nga bourgs (nga taone nui kua oti te taiepa), nga kaimahi toi, nga kaimahi toi, nga kaihokohoko, me etahi atu, i whakatuu "the bourgeoisie" "."
I ara ake te Guilds i te wa i pakanga nga kaipakihi takitahi (penei i nga kaimahi, tohunga me nga kaihokohoko) me o ratou rangatira o nga rangatira riihi e tono reti ana he nui ake te utu reti i era i whakaaehia i mua.
E ahu ana rātou ki tētahi whānau kua wehewehe mо̄ ngā whakatupuranga e toru, neke atu rānei.
Ko nga ingoa o ēnei whānau e mōhiotia nuitia ana i roto i te pa e noho ana rātou, ko o rātau tīpuna hoki i āwhina ki te hītori o te rohe.
Ahakoa rā, he nui te noho o ēnei iwi, e ngahau ana ki te huihuinga o ngā kaiwaiata nunui o te wā.
I roto i te reo Wīwī, ka tata tonu te tautapa te kupu bourgeoisie ki tētahi kōwae, ahakoa ka taea te nekeneke pāpori ki tēnei rōpū o te ohaoha pāpori.
I whirinaki a Hitler i te pūmatuatanga he koretake nā tōna hangarau, ā, i manakohia e ia tētahi kaupapa whakahaere ā-kāwanatanga e whakawhāititia ana e ngā painga o te Volk.
I kii ano a Hitler ko nga bourgeoisie umanga "kaore e mohio ki tetahi mea engari ko ta raatau hua."
I whakamaua te whaipainga o ēnei mea ki a rātau mahi ā ringa.
Ko Belle de Jour (Te Ātaahua o te rā, e 1967) e kōrero ana i te kōrero o te wahine bourgeois hauā ana i tana mārena, ka whakatau hoki ki te kairau.
I Ūropi, kua whakamahia te taitara o te Emepara mai i ngā Wā o Waenganui, e whakaarotia ana i aua wā e ōrite ana, e tata ana rānei te rangatiratanga ki tērā o Pope, nā te tūnga o muri nei hei māhunga ari o te Hahi me te kaiārahi wairua o te wāhanga Katorika o Ūropi ki te Uru.
Na te nui o te whakamāramatanga pākaha o te emepara, kaore he pānga a te emepara e tohu ana i te rangatiratanga o tētahi atu rangatira, ā, ko te tikanga he rāhui mo neke atu i te iwi kotahi.
I mōhiotia tikatia to rātau tūnga e te Emepara Rōmana Tapu i 1514, ahakoa kaore i whakamahia e nga ariki o Rūhia kia tae rā anō ki 1547.
Ko nga ingoa o mua o Roma ko te Kingi Nui, kingi rānei o nga Kingi, i whakamahia e nga Kingi o Pahia me ētahi atu, he rite tonu.
I tautuhia kētia a Kāwanatanga ki nga puringa rohe nui, kaua ko te ingoa o tōna rangatira i te waenganui o te rau tau 18.
I whakariharihatia e nga Rōmana o Neherā te ingoa o Rex ("kingi), ā, he mea nui ki te tikanga tōrangapū kia pupuri i nga āhua me ngā whakataunga o te ture ā-whenua."
I whakaarotia e Atetete te rangatira rōpū Rōmana tuatahi, i whakapūtā i tōna manaaki mā te kohikohi i ngā tūranga, i ngā taitara, i ngā hōnore o Republican Rome i tuaritia noatia ki ngā tāngata kē, e whakawhāiti ana i ngā mea i tuaritia i te mana o te tangata kotahi.
Heoi anō, ko te whakaahuatanga ōpaki o Imperator ("commander) i tino manakohia ai e ōna kaiwhakawhiwhi."
Ko tēnei tētahi o ngā taitara tūturu rawa: i puta mai a Caesar me ōna whakawhitinga i ia tau mai i te wā o Caesar augustus ki Tahi Simeon II o te tangohanga o Bulgaria mai i te torona i te tau 1946.
Ko nga mea rereke kei roto ko te taitara o te Hitori o Akuhata, he kohinga haurua-hitori o nga haurongo a Emepara o te rautau 2 me te 3.
He torutoru noa iho i hoatu ki te taitara, a ehara i te tikanga kia riro i nga wahine katoa a nga Emepara kingi taua ingoa.
I te tōmuritanga o te Whenua, pērā i ngā tau o mua o te arikitanga hou, he taitara a Imperatoro i tukuna e o rātou hōia me te kāahui hanga ture o Rōmana i muri i te wikitōria nui, he āhua ōrite ki te marau (te ūpoko, te rangatira rānei o te taua katoa).
Na te rangatiratanga o Nervan-Antonian, te whakahaere mo te nuinga o te rau tau 2, i mau ai te Emepa.
E toru nga whakamātau o te kaiwehe whenua poto i whiwhi i o rātau ake emepera: ko te Emepara o Kawi, ko te Emepara o Britannic, ko te Emepara o Palmyrene, ahakoa he rite tonu te whakamahinga o te toru o nga mīkiti.
I tētahi wā, ko te tokomaha o nga kaihaina e rima o te imperium (tirohia: Tetrarchy).
Ko te taone nui tonu te kiia ko Constantinople, ā, ko te ingoa o tēnei rā ko Istanbul).
I whakaoti ngā Emepara "Byzantine" ā Muri ake nei i ngā Emepara i te whakawhititanga mai i te ariā o te Emepara hei mana āpōrero ki te Emepara hei ariki pūmau."
I whakamahia ano e nga emepara o te waa Byzantine te kupu Kariki "autokrator" ", te tikanga" "tetahi e whakahaere ana ia ano" "," "monarch" "ranei, i whakamahia tuatahihia e nga kaituhi Kariki hei whakamaori i te rangatira o Latin."
Heoi anō, kāore tētahi o ēnei (me ētahi atu) i whiua rawatia ngā tīpoka me ngā taitara.
Whai muri i te raru o te pahua kino o te taone nui, ka kii nga kaiwhakataki i tetahi "Empire of Romania" hou, e mohiotia ana e nga kaitaiao ko te Emepaea Latina o Constantinople, e whakauru ana i a Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, hei Emepara. "
Mai i te wā o Rōpū, te Nui atu o mua, ka noho te nuinga o te kīngitanga o Carolingian o Francia ki te Rāwhiti ko te Emepaea Tapu o Roma.
Katahi ka mauria e te kingi tama te ingoa o Kingi Rōmana (Kingi o nga Roma).
I whakaarotia ko te Emepara o Roma te tuatahi i waenganui i te hunga kaha.
E rua ngā peka e tautuhia ana te papawhenua: ko te papawhenua tangata me te papawhenua ōkiko.
I tūturu, kua pāhonotia te papawhenua ki te kātahui me ngā ingoa wāhi.
I te mea ka pā te mokowā me te wāhi ki ngā kaupapa maha, pēnei i te ohaoha, te hauora, te āhua ātea, te tipu me te kararehe, he tino whai pānga te papawhenua.
Ko te tino arotahi o mua ki te taiao hangaia, me te pēhea te waihanga, te tiro, te whakahaere, me te whakaawe mokowā o te tangata.
Me whai mōhiotanga ki ngā āhuatanga tūturu o te papawhenua ōkiko, matawhenua tangata hoki, pēnei i ngā huarahi i whakatakotoria e ngā rōpū tangata i te taiao.
Ko te ako i nga punaha nui ake i te Ao tonu te tikanga no te Astronomy, te Cosmology ranei.
Pūtaiao a rohe: I nga tau 1950, ko te kaupapa putaiao a rohe e arahina ana e Walter Isard i ara ake ki te whakarato kaupapa nui ake me te wetewete i nga patai matawhenua, he rereke ki nga ahuatanga whakamaarama o nga kaupapa matawhenua tuku iho.
Kua tupu te kāriho mai i tētahi kohinga pūkenga tauira ki tētahi pūtaiao tūturu.
I tua atu i ērā atu pūāhua-roto o te papawhenua, me mārama hoki ngā tohunga GIS ki te pūtaiao rorohiko me ngā pūnaha pātengi raraunga.
Ka nui te whakamahinga o ngā tūwhenua i roto i ngā āpure maha, tae atu ki te whakatūtū ā-wai, matawhenua, tohutohu hinu, tātari huarere, whakamahere taone, waitohu, tahumaero.
Ko te mahere i hangaia e Eckhard Unger e whakaatu ana i Papurona i runga i ngā Uparati, e karapotitia ana e ngā whenua porohita e whakaatu ana i Assyria, i Urartu, i nga pa maha, e karapotitia ana e te "awa kawa" (Oceanus), e whitu ngā motu i whakarārangitia kia rite ai tētahi whetū tohuwhitu e whitu.
He rereke ki te Imago Mundi, he mahere whenua no Papurona o mua i ahu mai i te rautau 9 o mua BC e whakaatu ana ko Papurona kei te raki mai i te pokapū o te ao, ahakoa kaore e tino mohio he aha te tohu o taua pokapū.
E huaina ana hoki a Tāhae i te matapae o nga āraitanga.
Tērā ētahi taupatupatu mo wai te tangata tuatahi e whakapuaki ana he hanga te Ao, me te tāwere e haere ana ki Parmenides, Pythagoras rānei.
Ko tētahi o nga whakaaro tuatahi o te āwhina o te Whenua i hangaia e Rauemite.
I wehe-roto ngā meridian ki te 360°, me ia waeine i whakawaengatia ki te 60 (meneti).
I whakaroatia e ia te mahi a Hipparchus, mā te whakamahi i tētahi pūnaha mātiti i runga i ana mahere, ā, ka whāngaia kia 56,5 māra te roanga.
I nga Wā o nga Wā o Waenganui, na te hinganga o te rangatiratanga o Rōmana i ārahi ai te rerekētanga o te papawhenua mai i Uropi ki te ao ā-Rangi.
Ano hoki, i whakamaorihia, kua whakamaorihia e nga karaipi Islamic nga mahi o mua a nga Roma me nga Kariki ka whakatuu i te Whare Kaari i Baghdad mo tenei kaupapa.
I whakamāramatia tuatahi e Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) tētahi pūwhitinga pākākā mātāwhiti o te ao rangi.
I hanga ano e ia etahi tikanga ōrite, i te whanganga i nga tiketike o nga maunga, i nga rire o nga raorao, i te raorao o te pae.
I kitea e te raruraru e anga ana ki ngā pūtoro me ngā kaitiakiwhenua te pae me te whāroa o tētahi tauwāhi.
Ko te rautau 18 me te rautau 19 nga wa i mohiotia ai te matawhenua ko te akoako motuhake, a, ka noho ko ia tetahi o nga marautanga o te whare wnanga i Uropi (ina koa ko Paris me Berlin).
I roto i ngā rau tau e rua kua taha, nā nga nekeneketanga o te hangarau me ngā rorohiko i āwhina ki te whakawhanaketanga o ngā papawhenua me ngā mahi hōu pēnei i te tirohanga kaiuru me ngā papawhenua e whakaurua ana ki roto i te kōpaki o ngā utauta papawhenua.
Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – i kitea te hanganga o ngā oko awaawa me te mātauranga arā atu anō i roto i te mōtini awaawa, i te tino tere o te rere o te hukapapa māro.
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) - pāpā o te papa matawhenua o Amerika me te kaiwhakawhanake o te huringa horo.
Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) - ko te perehitini wahine tuatahi o te Pānga o nga Kaitiaki Matawhenua o Amerika.
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) - te kaitiaki matawhenua tangata me te kaitito o te kaitito o te wāhi Matua.
David Harvey (whanau 1935) - Kairangahau whenua Marxist me te kaituhi o nga ariā mo te takotoranga taiao me te taone nui, te toa o te Tohu Toi a Vautrin Lud.
Ki etahi keehi, he rereketanga kei waenga i te taone nui (kaupapa ture) me te nohoanga o te kawanatanga, kei tetahi atu waahi.
Hei tauira tawhito Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, tawhito Athens, Rome, Bratislava, Budapest, Constantinople, Chang'an, tawhito Cusco, Kyiv, Madrid, Paris, Podgorica, London, Beijing, Prague, Tallinn, Tokyo, Lisbon, Riga, Vilnius, and Warsaw.
I etahi whenua, kua hurihia te whakapaipai mo nga take geopolitical; Ko te taone tuatahi o Finnish, ko Turku, i mahi hei taone nui o te whenua mai i nga tau o waenga i raro i te mana o Sweden, i ngaro tana mana i te wa o te Grand Duchy o Finilani i te tau 1812, i te wa i hangaia ai a Helsinki hei taone nui o Finland e te Emepaea o Ruhia.
Kai Canada tētahi pū ā iwa, engari he tekau nga kawanatanga me nga rohe e toru e whai pānga matua ana ia.
I Ahitereiria, ka rite tonu te whakamahinga o te kupu "pū matua" ki te pānui i aua pūmatua ā rohe e ono me te pūmatua o te rangatira o Canberra, ko Darwin, te pūmatua o Te Takiwā ki te Raki.
Kāore i te rite ki te pānga whenua, engari ko te pūmatua o te iwi rangatira ka noho ko te pū matua o te tūnga, pērā ki London, ko ia te pū matua o England me te United Kingdom.
Ko ngā pūmatua ā iwi o Germany me Russia (ko Stadtstaat o Berlin me te tāone rangatira o Moscow) he tūnga whai mana o ngā whenua e rua.
Frankfort, Kentucky, i waenganui o Louisville me Lexnging.
Tallahassee, Florida. i kōwhiria hei puare i waenganui o Pensacola me St. Augustine, o Florida – i reira nga pa nunui e rua i Awhero.
I ētahi wā, ko nga huringa i roto i te whakahaere tōrangapū o te iwi e hua ana i te ingoa o tētahi pūmatua hou.
I te wa i noho ai nga Moutere o Canary hei hapori motuhake i te 1982, ko Santa Cruz de Tenerife me Las Palmas de Gran Canaria i whakawhiwhia ki te mana rangatira.
Estonia: Ko te Kōti Nui me te Manatu Mātauranga me te Rangahau kei Tartu.
Ki te ohorere, ka taea te whakawhiti atu te tūru o nga mana rangatiratanga ki tētahi atu taone, kia noho ai nga Whare Pāremata ki taua tauwāhi, ki te Perehitini me te Kāpata.
I ia ono marama, ka neke te mīhini kāwanatanga katoa mai i tētahi taone ki tētahi atu.
Ko Dharamshala, ko ia anо̄ te puku o te Whakahaeretanga o Tibetana Matua, ko te tuarua o ngā pū o te makariri o te rohe.
Ko te taone anake e whakahaeretia ana hai rohe Uniana.
Uttarakhand: Ko Dehradun te pūmatua whakahaere me te ture, i te wā e noho ana te kōti tiketike i Nainital.
I tiimata te hanganga i te 1960 ka oti i te 1966.
Ko te whare perehitini (Malacanang Palace) me te Hupirimi Kooti kei roto i te taone nui engari ko nga whare e rua o te Kaunihera kei nga taone motuhake.
Sri Lanka: Ko Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte kua tohua hei taone nui mo te tari me te waahi o te whare paremata, ko te taone nui o mua, ko Colombo, kua tohua hei "taone nui". "
South africa: Ko Te pūmatua whakahaere ko Pretoria, ko te pū o te ture ko Cape Town, a, ko te pūmatua whakawā ko Bloemfontein.
Switzerland: Ko Peren te Tāone Hauwhenua o Switzerland, a, he pūmatua moe maori te mahi.
He rite ano ki a Illinois me New York State, ko te nuinga o nga roopu whaimana me nga apiha e noho ana i te tonga o Pennsylvania (Taone nui o Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery County, Delaware County, me Chester County) e hiahia ana ki te mahi i te nuinga o nga wa i Philadelphia.
Ko Israel raua ko Palestine: Ko te Kawanatanga o Israel raua ko te Mana o Palestine, e tono ana ratou ko Hiruharama hei pūmatua mo raua.
Tērā pea ko te whakawhiti i tētahi pūmatua ki tētahi wāhi matawāhi, tauwāhi tāporo rānei mō ngā take ohaoha, pānga whaiaro rānei (i ētahi wā e mōhiotia ana he pūmatua whakamua, he pūmatua rānei ki te toa rānei).
Na nga emepara māmā i whakaneke to rātau pū matua ki Beijing mai i nga Nanjing pūtahi rawa hei āwhina ki te whakahaere i te rohe ki nga Mongol.
Ko te mutunga ko Delhi te taone nui o te koroneihana i muri o te Koroneihana Durbar o King-Emperor George V i te tau 1911, e haere tonu ana hei taone motuhake o Inia mai i te 1947.
I ētahi wā, i kōwhiria te tauwāhi o tētahi taone nui hou hei whakamutu i te kōmemeke tūturu, tērā rānei, i waenganui i ngā wehenga maha, pēnei i ngā kēhi o Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington me Managua.
I te wā o nga Kingitanga e Toru, ka hinga a Shu rāua ko Wu i te takanga o a rāua pūmatua o Chengdu rāua ko Jianye.
Whai muri i te hingatanga o te whare rangatira o Qing, ko te tohatoha mana me te whakapai ake i nga hangarau whakawhiti me te whakawhitiwhiti hangarau i taea ai e nga Nationals Chinese me nga Kaimana Hainamana te neke tere i nga taone nui me te pupuri i o raatau kaiarahi i te wa o te raru o te whakaekenga a Japanese.
Ka taea te tautuhi hei wāhi tūturu, he tūnga tūturu hoki me ngā rohenga kua tautuhia ā-kaiwhakahaere, ā, ko ēhea ngā mema e mahi nuitia ana ki ngā tūmahi kāore i te ahuwhenua.
I roto i te rārangi kōrero, he iti noa iho te nuinga o te momo tangata, engari i muri i ngā rau e rua rau, neke atu i te hāwhe o te iwi whānuitanga o te ao e noho ana ināianei i roto i ngā pa, ā, he tino hōhonu ōna putanga mo te tūmautanga o te ao whānui.
Ko te tikanga o tēnei whakaawetanga nui ake, he āhuatanga nunui hoki nga tāone ki ngā take ā-ao, pērā ki te whanaketanga mārō, te whakamahana o te ao me te hauora o te ao.
Na reira, ko nga taone kiato e kiia ana he wāhanga tino nui no te whawhai ki te rerekētanga o te āhuarangi.
Hei tauira, ko nga taone nui pera i Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Roma, Athens, Seoul, Tokyo, me Washington, D.C. e whakaatu ana i te tuakiri me te tihi o raatau iwi.
Tērā pea ka kitea te taone he pūrākau, he tauira pānga i waenganui i ngā rōpū tangata, he mokowā whakanao me te tuari, he āpure tōpana ōkiko, he kōwhiringa hono, he tauwhāinga papā rānei.
Ka whakamahia e ngā tatauranga ā-motu ngā tikanga maha - he take whakatara pēnei i te iwi whānui, te kiato i te iwi, te maha o ngā nohoanga, te taumahi o te mahi ā-mahi, me te hanganga - hei whakarārangi i ngā iwi hei taone.
Kotahi tonu te hua o te tāone me te whenua e mārama ana kia māmā te whakarapa: i te tauine huri noa, ko te nuinga o te wā ka whakatikia ngā tāone ki ngā wāhi e āhei ana ki te tautoko i te iwi whānui ahuwhenua pūmau.
I te pakeketanga o nga taone nui, ka haere mai hoki nga rōpū ā ihu tangata, i nga tūru o te kāwanatanga ki nga whare kaupapa whakapono, ki te whānui i ēnei wāhi whakaūtanga.
Ko te āhuatanga o te taiao ā-tinana e aukati ana i te puka i hangaia ai tētahi taone.
Tērā pea ka whakatūria mo te whakangungu arotau e hoatu ana ki te whenua karapoti.
Tērā pea ka tipu tēnei puka mai i te rerenga ā muri ake i tētahi wā roa, me ngā pātū pakitara o te taone me te tohu i ngā rohenga taone tawhito ake.
I roto i nga taone pērā i te Moscow, kai te mārama tonu te kite i tēnei tauira.
Kua kitea e ngā hukihuki i ēnei wāhi nga wharau o ngā tāone huri noa ki te mahi, ki ngā tōrangapū, ki ngā tōrangapū, i te hāhi rānei.
I hangaia nga tāone i whakaritea e China, e ai ki nga tikanga tapu hai mahi hei mekameka haora.
E kitea ana ēnei pae i runga i te āhua o te tikanga nui, papa rōpū, me te mātiti mo nga rūma mō ngā kaimahi, me te nui ake o te āhua o nga whare e wātea ana mō ngā akoranga tiketike ake.
I ngā rau tau e whai ake nei, i hangaia e ngā tūnga tāone motuhake o Greece, ko Athens, ko te pānga o nga tāngata tāne e kōpikopiko ana i te taone nui.
I raro i te mana o tōna emeketanga, i panoni a Rōmana, a, he maha nga pa (komira), a, i mauria mai e rātau ōna tikanga o te hanganga papa, o te hoahoa, me te iwi taone.
Ko te taangata o Norte Chico i uru ki te 30 nga taone nui i roto i te rohe o Norte Chico o te taha raki-pokapū o te rohe o Peru.
Na te mawhitiwhiti o te hiko i te Uru i neke ki Constantinople, ki te iwi aupiki o te Rangi, me ōna pa matua ko Baghdad, Cairo, me Cordoba.
I te tekau ma toru tekau ma wha o nga keneturio, ka noho ētahi pa hei kōrero kaha, hei mau i nga rohe i raro i to ratou mana, i te whakatūnga rānei i nga emepaetanga moana whānui.
Ko ngā pūmatua nui ake o Ūropi ki te Uru (London me Paris) i whai painga mai i te tupunga o te tauhokohoko i muri mai i te putanga o tētahi hokohoko Atenana.
Na England i ārahi i te huarahi i a Rānana e riro tino rangatiratanga ana, me te tupu o ngā taone huri noa i te whenua i ngā tauwāhi whaitiri mo te mahi.
I kitea te kaiārahi taiwhenua nā ngā tauwhāinga tupu i hangaia e ngā kaihanga, kaiwhakawhanake, kaiwhakawhanake, pāpāho, kaiwhakaari kāwanatanga pēnei i ngā kāwanatanga, me ngā kaporeihana rangatira.
"He mahi nga hua i te whakaoratanga i te taunga o te taunga; whakarārurutanga i roto i te taone; te huringa o te CBD ki te mahi ratonga arā atu anō; whakangahau, whare taonga, me nga wāhi ahurea; te hanganga o nga taiwhanga tākaro me nga matatini hākinakina; me te whanaketanga o te ūkui.""
Tae noa ki te rau tau 18, i tīari tētahi tauwhāiti i waenganui i te iwi whānui ā-ahuwhenua me ngā taone whai mākete me te hanganga ā-iti.
Ko te tono ahurea o nga tāone e whakaaro ana hoki ki te whakamano i nga tangata whenua.
Ko Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen, China me Niamey, Niger, e kiia ana ko etahi o nga taone nui tipu o te ao, me nga reanga tipu e 5-8%.
Ka matapae te UN i ētahi atu 2,5 miriona ngā pūnohohe tāone (ā, e 300 miriona, iti iho ngā kaioroto whenua) puta noa i te 2050, ā, ko te 90% o ngā tāngata taone e pā ana ki Āhia me Āwherika.
Ko te paeroa hōhonu e wehewehe ana i te rangatira me te rawakore i ēnei pa, ko te tikanga he rangatira e noho ana i roto i ngā hapori kē me te nuinga nui o te iwi e noho ana i roto i nga whare nohoanga kāore i te rawakore, me ētahi atu āhuatanga rawakore.
"Heoi anō, ka whakaritea e ngā rohe te tārewa o ngā ture ā-ture e tūwhera ana i te mutunga o ngā hara (me ngā hara hē) pēnei i te tīpako me te hōkaitanga, e hiahiatia ana he whakaaetanga mō ngā whakahētanga, e hiahia ana rānei kia tangohia e ngā kaihoko me ngā kaipakihi te hukarere i nga pae o te taone.""
Ka tukua ēnei kia iti ake, kia iti iho rānei te ōrite o te huatau.
Ko ēnei paearu hāngai whāia ki te "ratonga tuku ture, ngā hātepe auau mō te whakaratonga o ngā ratonga, e ngana ana ki te whakakotahi i ngā whāinga hua o ngā tikanga ratonga taone."
"Robert L. Lineberry, "Whakahaere Ana i te Ōritenga Taone: Te Tuaritanga o ngā Ratonga Tūmatanui o Te Pūnuku; i Hahn me Levine (1980)."
Heoi anō, mō te hoko i ngā ratonga kāwanatanga, me ērā atu kaupapa whanaketanga taone, he raru tūturu, ko ngā tāone e wāhitau ana mā ngā pānga ki ngā kāwanatanga teitei ake, ngā whakaritenga me te wāhanga tūmataiti, me ngā huarahi pēnei i ngā ratonga tūmataiti (te hoko atu i ngā ratonga ki te wāhanga tūmataiti), te whakahaeretanga o ngā kaporeihana taunaha-tūturu
Na te pānga o te aorangitanga me te tūnga o ngā kaporeihana taurangi i roto i ngā kāwanatanga whenua i te ao katoa, i ahu mai ki tētahi neke i te tirohanga ki te rangatiratanga taone, i waho atu i te "ariā kāwanatanga taone" i reira ka whakahaere tika ai tētahi tauwhāinga o ngā painga ā-rohe, ki tētahi ariā o te mana mahi o waho o te mahi, e pāhono ana ki ngā mātauranga i te whakaaro o te nekehanga.
Ko ngā utauta whakarite, i tua atu i te hoahoa taketake o te taone, me ngā pūtea penapena pūtea tūmatanui i roto i ngā mana hanga me ngā mana whakamahi whenua pēnei i te nohonga.
"E wātea ana hoki ki ngā tāone i roto i te whakatinanatanga o ngā kaupapa whakahaere, he mana kāwanatanga o te nohoanga, te mana o te wehenga raro me te ture o te hanga, ngā tikanga noho, noho me te noho ā-noho.""
Ka noho tonu pea ngā tāngata e noho tata ana, e mahi ana, e tākaro ana, i ngā wāhi motuhake, me te pāhono ki ngā tāngata rerekē, ki te hanga i ngā pānga ā-iwi, i ngā taiao rānei, i ngā wāhi pōhara rānei, i ngā wāhi āhua rawakore, i ngā āhuatanga āhua o te rawakore.
Ko ngā wahi o waho ake i te uru, ā, ka nui kē atu, ngā hapori kuwaha me ētahi atu momo "tūtae" puta noa i te ao, ka whakaaetia e ngā reinga paetata kia whakawehe i a rātou ki ngā rohe haumaru, tāuke hoki.
Ko tenei kaitautoko whakakeke — akene he 1.5 piriona taangata i enei ra, 2.5 piriona i te 2030 - ko te akomanga whakahoahoa tere tipu me te rongonui o te ao.
He āhua ōrite, he āhua kōrero rānei ki te kōwhiringa o te kōrero i whakaahuatia i roto i te Whakahau Ahuwhakamahi.
He roa te kāinga o ngā tāone hokohoko ki te hokohoko me te whakapaunga mā te atanga o te hokohoko.
Ma te mākete mahi mātotoru ake e āhei ai te pūkenga pai ake e ōrite ana i waenganui i ngā rōpū me ngā tangata.
Ko nga rangatira ahurea e noho ana i roto i ngā tāone, e herea tahitia ana e te pūmatua ahurea, a, ko rātau anō e tākaro ana i ētahi tūranga mo te whakahaere.
Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, Tuakiri Wāhi Whakaaro Anō", i Kavaratzis, i Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015)."
E haere atu ana nga tūruhi whenua ki Agra kia kite ai i Taj Mahal, i te Taaua rānei o New York kia toro atu ki te World Trade Center.
He aha ngā tāngata ingoamuna—te rawakore, te hunga hauā, te hunga tūhono-kore — i te nuinga o te wā e hiahia ana ki te ora i raro i te mate kino i roto i nga tikanga ora me te rangimarie o ngā pa ririki, i te wehenga tinana o nga whanaketanga āpiha?
Ko te hunga i haere mai ki te noho i roto i a rātau i mahi kia whai wāhi ai, kia whakataetae ai ki tētahi taumata e taea ana.
Ko te hākinakina hoki he tūranga nui i roto i te tohu hoko tāone me te hanga tuakiri paetata.
He mea nui ake, he wāhi pai tenei mō te tāngata tāpoi me te pūtea penapena (Kasimati, 2003).
Na te pakanga i mau mai te whakaaro ārahi pāpori me te kaha tōrangapū i roto i te ringa o tētahi iti rawa o te mau rākau, i hātepea e te tohunga e whakamahi ana i nga mana tapu, e whai ana i te mātauranga muna, he mōhiotanga tino nui, he mōhio matakite rānei."
I te wā o te Pakanga Nui II, i ia wā ka whakapuakina e nga kāwanatanga ā iwi ētahi pa e tuwhera ana, e tuku ana i a rātau ki tētahi hoariri e neke ana kia kore ai e tūkino, i te pare hara.
Ko tērā riri, e mōhiotia ana hei takahanga, e whai ana i ngā pūkenga o te matatū me te riri ā-hinengaro, mā te mahi e toro atu ai i te āraitanga hara taone hou, e whakamahi kē ana i ngā ariā pēnei i te mokowā whakawātea.
Na te nui ake o ngā ārai hei tāurunga, kua whakawāteatia ēnei whatunga hei tohutohu māori, ko te tikanga e manakohia ana e ngā arorau ohaoha te mana o ia whatunga e tētahi umanga, tūmatanui, tūmataiti rānei.
Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, "Ngā Hanganga Taone: Whai hua, Arotakenga Kaupapa, ā-Pūtea; i te Wellman & spiller (2012)."
Ko te noho marangai, e hiahiatia ana mo te hauora pai i roto i ngā āhuatanga pūkaki, me whai wāhi wai me te whakahaere moumou, me te whai haurangi takitahi.
E tino whakawhirinaki ana te oranga taone o nāianei ki te pūngao i tawhiti mā te hiko mō te mahinga o ngā mīhini hiko (mai i ngā pūrere kāinga ki ngā mīhini mahi ki ngā pūnaha hiko mahi ināianei ki ngā pūnaha hiko kua whakamahia ināianei i roto i ngā whakawhitinga, umanga, kāwanatanga) me ngā rama hiko, mō ngā rama hiko me ngā rama ā-whare.
Tom Hart, "Kawenga me te Pa; i Paddison (2001)."
He maha nga tāone nunui o Amerika e whakahaere tonu ana i te arawhiti tūmatanui mā te paepae, pērā i whakaahuatia e te pūnaha Ārai Taone tūturu o New York City.
Ko ngā whare anōropogenic me te ururua, me te mahinga i roto i ngā māra, ka hanga i ngā taiao ā-tinana, matū hoki, ā, kāore ōna taurite i te koraha, i ētahi take e whakahohe ana i te mātauranga māmā kē.
Mai i tētahi tirohanga, kaore nga taone i te tautoko i runga i o rātau hiahia rauemi.
E mōhiotia ana nga pa o nāianei mo te waihanga i ā rātou ake moroiti, he raima, he wātū, me ētahi atu mata tinihanga, e wera ana i te rā o te ra, i te ua ki rō ara ā-raro.
Ko ngā āhuatanga ā-rangi he whakanui i te nekenga ā-5–10%.
Hei tauira, i roto i te moroiti taone, ko ngā rohe rawakore iti rawa e whiwhi ana i te wera (engari he iti ake ngā huarahi e mau ai).
Ko te nuinga o te wā e kiia ana ko rātou ko te mokowā tūwhera Taone (ahakoa kāore tēnei kupu i te tikanga i te mokowā kākāriki i ngā wā katoa), te mokowā Kākāriki, te kākāriki Taone.
I whakamahia e te akoranga te raraunga mai i ngā tāngata e tata ana ki te 20,000 i te UK.
Ko ngā tāngata kāore i whiwhi i te rua haora i te iti rawa - ahakoa i hipa atu rātau i te haora ia wiki — kāore i whiwhi i ngā painga.
Kāore i tatautia e te akoranga te wā i pau i roto i te whārangi, māra rānei o tētahi tangata, he wā hanga noa iho, engari ko te nuinga o ngā toronga āhuatanga i roto i te mātaitanga i roto i ngā māwhiti e rua mai i te kāinga. "
I whakamahia e Saskia Sassen te kupu "taone nui" i roto i tana mahi i te tau 1991, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo hei kōrero ki te mana, te tūnga, me te āhuatanga o tētahi taone nui, kaua ki tōna rahi.
3 (1982): 319 Ko ngā tāone huri noa e hanga ana i te pōhatu tōmua o te aroākapa o te ao whānui, e whakahaere ana i te tono me te whakahaere mā tā rātou mana o te ohaoha, o te tōrangapū.
Ko ngā kaiwhakawā o te ariā e tohu ana ki ngā wāhi rerekē o te hiko me te whakawhitiwhiti.
Ko ngā kaporeihana me ngā pēke tauwhānui he whakarite i o rātau tari matua i roto i ngā tāone ao whānui me te whakahaere i te nuinga o a rātau umanga i roto i tēnei horopaki.
"Nancy Duxbury & Sharon Jeannotte, "KaupapaHere Āhuatanga Ahurea Huri noa; Ūpoko 21 i roto i The Ashgate Research Companion ki te Hoa Whakarite me te Ahurea; Rānōna: Ashgate, 2013."
I whāngaia e te Hui Whāinga i te tau 1976 te Whakapuakitanga Vancouver ki ngā Tūnga Tangata"" e tohu ana ko te whakahaeretanga taone hei āhuatanga taketake o te whanaketanga, ā, ka whakatū i ētahi atu tikanga mō te whakahaere i ngā wāhi taone."
I te marama o Hanuere 2002 ko te Komihana UN mo nga Whakataunga Tangata hei umbrella agency i kiia ko te United Nations Kaupapa Whakataunga Tangata UN-Habitat ranei, he mema no te Roopu Whakawhanake a te United Nations.
Ko nga kaupapa here a te Pēke e arotahi ana ki te whakapakari i ngā mākete pānga whenua mā te āwhina hua me te āwhina hangarau.
Ko nga taone nui i roto i te ahurea o te Uru, e puta ana i roto i te Paipera i roto i nga āhua kino me te tapu, i tohutia e Babylon me Jerusalem.
Ka taea te mōhio ki ngā tāone nui rawa, ahakoa kē rānei: i te wā kotahi e whakaora ana, e whakakaha ana, e whai rawa ana, e rawakore ana, e whakaritea ana, e ngāraru ana.
Ko tēnei me ētahi atu ariā tōrangapū, e tino whakaawe ana i nga kōrero me ngā kaupapa i roto i nga kōrero mo nga taone.
Kei roto i ngā tuhinga puāwai, o roto hoki he tūmomo whakaahuatanga e pā ana ki ngā āhuahira tāone me te hītori.
Ko ētahi atu whakaahuatanga o mua o ngā tāone i te rua tekau o te rau tau, ko ētahi o rātau whakaaturanga he mokowā mōhiotanga hangarau, he ngāwari tonu te mahi o ngā pūnaha waka.
Ko te whenua he whenua motuhenga motuhēhē, he whenua tōrangapū rānei , he iwi kē rānei.
Kaore i te tūturu te ariki.
Ko te whenua nui rawa atu o te ao i te wāhi matawhenua ko Rūhia, a, ko Haina te taitapa tino pai rawa, ko China, he mea whai mai ko India, te United States, Indonesia, Pakistan me Brazil.
I nga whenua maha o Ūropi ka whakamahia ngā kupu mō ngā wehenga-roto o te rohe ā-motu, pēnei i a German Bundesländer, me tētahi wā kōrero iti iho mo te kāwanatanga ariki.
Kaore he whakaaetanga ao whānui i runga i te tau o "ngā whenua" i te ao mai i te mea kua tautohetohe te nuinga o ngā tūnga rangatiratanga.
He rerekē te nuinga o te wehewehe mana motuhake o ngā whenua kāore i te rangatira.
E whakarārangi ana te pūrongo i te whanaketanga whenua i runga anō i ngā rauemi nui ā-iwi (GNI).
E mōhio ana te pūrongo 2019 ki ngā whenua whāngai anake i Amerika ki te Raki, i Europe, i Asia me Pacific.
Ko te Peeke o te Ao e tautuhi ana i ona rohe ko te East Asia me te Pacific, Europe me Central Asia, Latin America me Caribbean, Middle East me North Africa, North America, South Asia, me Sub-Saharan Africa.
Ko te hōparatanga ko te tikanga o te kimi i te take o te kitenga o ngā mōhiohio, ngā rauemi rānei, i roto hoki i te horopaki o te papawhenua, i te mokowā rānei, ehara i te rangahau me te whanaketanga kāore i te whakawaenga i ngā pūtaiao whenua, i te mātauranga tatari rānei.
Ko te mea anake i mahia e te emepara o Nero, te āhua nei he takatū mo te raupatu i a Ethiopia, a Nubia rānei: i roto i te 62 AD e rua nga kaiekerangi i hōpara i nga pūtake o te awa o Naera.
Na nga Rōmana hoki i whakarite he tohutohu tokomaha ki Europe ki te Raki, a, ka hōpara atu ki China ki Āsia.
100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese timata.
Ko te hanganga kī mo to rātau hōpara ko te waka oka, nāna i homai he pūhara tere, pūmau hoki mo te mau taonga me nga tāngata.
Ko ngā mātauranga o te tau 2011 i Wairau Bar i Aotearoa e whakaatu ana i te tūponotanga nui ko tētahi taketake ko te Motu o Ruahine i ngā Moutere Iwi Whānui.
Tērā te ritenga ahurea me te reo i waenganui i te Tāki WhenuaNui me te Māori o Aotearoa.
I te takanga o te tau e 1328–1333, ka rere atu a ia i te Moana o China ki te Tonga, a, ka toro atu ki nga wāhi maha i Āsia Ki te Tonga, ā, tae noa ki Āsia ki te Tonga, ka rere ki Sri lanka, ki Īndia, a, ka haere tonu ki Australia
Ko Portugal me Spain te nuinga o nga mahi tirotiro, ko etahi iwi o Europi e whai ana, penei i a England, Netherlands, me France.
E hiahiatia ana e nga āhuatanga hōhonu o te moana hōhonu nga tikanga me ngā hangarau whakamārama.
Ko te wehenga kētanga o te kaiwhakahaere, e mōhiotia ana he wehenga tika tētahi āhua.
Ko nga rohe whakawhirinaki e noho ana ināianei ki te ao i tēnei rā, ko te tikanga kia tino nui te tikanga o te mana motuhake tōrangapū.
E whakaarotia ana ko te tūnga o Cook Islands e rite ana ki te rangatiratanga mō ngā take ture o te ao whānui, ā, ka mahi te whenua i te mana tūturu mō ana take ā-roto, o waho hoki.
Engari, i raro i nga whakaritenga o te whakaaetanga koreutu, ka pupuri a Aotearoa i ētahi kawenga mo nga tikanga kē, me te wawao i a Niue.
Ko te nuinga o te wā he whāiti tēnei rārangi ki ngā mea e herea ana e tētahi tiriti aowhānui i runga i tō rātou tūnga, kāore e noho motuhake, he taumata motuhake rānei o te mana motuhake, ā, he tino whakahaere i a rātou anō i ngā take o te ao.
He mana whakahaere takitahi rātau, ahakoa kei te Kāwanatanga British te haepapa mō te parenga me te whakaritenga ao whānui, ā, kei a rātou te kawenga tūturu mo te whakarite i te kāwanatanga pai.
Kaore he whakaaturanga whakamauru karauna i te Pāremata o Peretānia.
Ko Aotearoa me ōna whakamaurutanga e tiritiri ana i te kāwanatanga ōrite, a, kotahi anō te kāwanatanga ariki.
I whakaaetia te Kawenata ki te Whakatū i tētahi Kotahitanga o nga Motu Mariana ki te Raki o Mariana (CNMI) i te Ūniana Tōrangapū me te Hononga o Amerika i te tau kotahitanga o te tau 1976.
He pūtake pūmau o te rangirua me te mōhiotanga tēnei i te wā e whakamātau ana ki te tautuhi, kia mārama, me te whakamārama i te pātahitanga tōrangapū o Puerto Rico ki Te Hononga o Amerika.
Heoi anō, ko te tūnga o ōna whenua raupapa"" i ngā Caribbean (Aruba, Curaçao, me Sint Maarten) e āta whakaarotia ana ki ngā whakamāurutanga, ki "ngā tūnga kāore i takitahi"."
Ko ngā taitapa he rohenga matawhenua, e whakaratoa ana e ngā āhuatanga tauwāhi pēnei i ngā moana, e ngā whakarōpū wehewehe rānei o ngā mea tōrangapū pēnei i ngā kāhui kāinga, ngā kōrero rangatiratanga, ngā tūnga whāngai, me ētahi atu mea ahuwhānui.
Ko te nuinga o ngā taitapa o waho kei te whakahaeretia ā-wāhanga, kei te whakahaeretia katoa rānei, ā, ka taea te whakawhiti ā-ture anake i ngā wāhitaki taitapa kua tohua, ā, ka taea te whakahaere i ngā rohe taitapa.
Ko te nuinga o nga whenua he āhua mana taitapa hai whakarite, hei whakawhāiti rānei i te nekehanga a te tangata, nga kararehe, me nga taonga ki roto, ki waho rānei o te whenua.
Hei noho, hei mahi rānei i roto i ngā taitapa o tētahi whenua, ka hiahia pea ki ngā tuhinga neke atu anō, ki ngā whakaaetanga motuhake rānei; engari kāore te pupuritanga o aua tuhinga e whakaū ana kia whakaaetia te tangata kia whakawhiti i te rohe.
Ko te nuinga o nga whenua e rāhui ana ki te mau i ngā rongoā mana kore, ki ngā kararehe kua mōreareatia rānei puta noa i o r
I ngā wāhi he raruraru te ngākitanga, te hekenga, me te hūoro, he maha nga whenua e whakakaha ana i ngā taitapa ki ngā taiapa me ngā ārai, me te whakatakoto tikanga whakahaere taitapa tika.
He pūnoa tēnei i ngā whenua i roto i te Horahanga O Uropi Schengen me ngā wāhanga tawhio o te rohe o Cānada–Te Hononga o Amerika.
Nga awa: kua whakaritea ētahi taitapa tōrangapū i nga taitapa tūturu i hangaia e nga awa.
I roto i te Paipera Hiperu, i tautuhia e Mohi te waenganui o te awa o Aranona hei rohe i waenga o Moapa me nga iwi o nga Israelite e noho ana ki te taha rawhiti o te Jordan.
Ko nga tauira ko te Roto Tanganyika, me te Whenua Manapori o Kongo, o Zambia i tōna ākau ki te uru, o Tanzania me Burundi i te rawhiti; me nga Roto Nui, e whakaahua nei i te wahi nui o te rohe i waenganui o Canada, o Te Hononga o Amerika.
Ngā awhe maunga: He maha nga iwi kei a rātau taitapa tōrangapū kua tautuhia i runga i nga awhe maunga, i te nuinga o nga wā i te takiwā o te wai.
Ko tētahi tauira ko te ngahere hikura i hangaia e te Tāpuaki Waiata a China i te tekau mā tahi o nga rau tau.
Hei tauira, kua kore tonu te rohenga i waenganui i te Rāwhiti me Te Uru o Germany i te rohenga ao whānui, engari ka kitea tonutia nā ngā tohu hītori i runga i te whenua, ā, he wehenga ahurea, ohaoha tonu rānei i Germany.
Ko ngā taitapa moana e tīari ana i roto i te horopaki o ngā wai whenua, o ngā rohe pātata, me ngā rohe ohaoha tāuke; heoi anō, kāore te tapanga i roto i te roto, i ngā rohenga awa rānei, e whakaarotia ana i roto i te horopaki o nga rohenga whenua.
Ka whakaroa te moana ātea tātea 12 mai i te takutai o tētahi whenua, ā, ka whai mana ia ki te pare i tōna ake moana ā-roto engari rawa i raro i te parenga o te Wā mo te rōpū o te NATO.
Heoi anō, he whakaaetanga āhuwhānui o te taiwhanga ātea poutū e whakamutu ana i te wāhi o te raina Kármán.
Ka whakatakotoria nga ture taitapa katoa e nga kāhui ā iwi me te rohe, ā, ka rerekē pea i runga anō i te iwi me ngā here tōrangapū o nāianei, o te ohaoha rānei.
E mahi ana i ngā taitapa – Whakahaere ana i te kaha o ngā ngohe whakawhiti-taitapa hei whakapiki i te haumarutanga oranga o te Haona o Awherika.
Ko ngā whakawhitinga ohaoha a te tangata i ngā taitapa (i tua atu i te kā) ka pā pea ki te haere tonu i waenganui i ngā wāhi mahi me ngā kāinga.
Ka taea te whakahohe, te aukati hoki i te nekeneke, puta noa i ngā taitapa hoki.
He maha ngā rohe taitapa e hohe ana ki te whakahauhau i te whakawhitiwhitinga me te kōrerorero ā-rohe, me ngā rautaki whanaketanga ohaoha o te rohe-taitapa.
Mai i tōna whakaarotanga i te waenganui o te 80, kua āwhinatia tēnei mahi tohunga i te whanaketanga o ngā pātai e karapoti ana i te whenua tupu, ngā taitapa, te matatū, te tuakiri, te iwi, te puku, me te taketake o te motu.
Ka taea te whakauru i ngā taitapa engari kāore i te whāiti ki te reo, ahurea, pāpori, ā-ohanga, hāhi, me te tuakiri ā-motu.
Ko ēnei rehetoi he "rīpeka taitapa" ēnei.
Ko te ahuwhānui, ko te takiwā taone, ko tētahi taiwhenua rānei he wāhi matawhenua e noho ana i waho o ngā taone me nga taone.
He iti noa iho te kiato o te iwi whānui, me ngā whakataunga iti o ngā rohe o te taiwhenua.
Ko nga rohe taone nui, he iti iho i te 15 ōrau o to rātau tokomaha e noho ana i tētahi iwi taone.
Ko nga rohe o te raki ki te raki ko nga wehenga tatauranga o te tuawhenua e kitea ana i te nuinga o te waa i runga ake ranei i nga raina e whai ake nei i ia rohe: Newfoundland me Labrador, 50th; Quebec 54th; Ontario, 54th; Manitoba, 53rd; Saskatchewan, Alberta me British Columbia, 54th.
Ko te Tari Tatauranga o U.S., te Ratonga Rangahau Economichanga o te USDA, me te Tari Whakahaere me te Tahua (OMB) kua whakakao mai hei awhina i te whakamaarama i nga tuawhenua.
Te pire pāmu o te tau 2002 (P.L. 107–171, Sec.
E ai ki te pukapuka, Ko ngā Whakamāramatanga o Ā-Ā-Rohe: He Pukapuka mō ngā Kaupapahere Hauora Kaihanga me ngā Kaipūkaro, "Ko te nuinga o te wā e whakaaro ana ngā tāpuitanga ngāwari ki ngā ratonga hauora whānui o ngā rohe matua o te rohe.
I noho ko tēnei te tautuhinga Whakarerekē kahurangi o tō ā-taiwhenua. "
I whakarewaina e Te Kāwanatanga Oemmanuel Mmacron tētahi mahere mahi i te tau 2019 e manakohia ana e ngā rohe tūmatanui ko "Rārangi Take Ā-Rohe."
I Scotland ka whakamahia he tikanga kē mo te tawhito.
Ka whakamāramatia e TĀPI ngā rohe ā-taiwhenua he rohe iti iho i te 49,000 (ngā taone -3 ki ngā tāone tier-6).
Ko ngā rohe tūmatanui i Pakistan e tata ana ki ngā tāone, e whakaarotia ana he wāhi kotahi, wahi o waho ake rānei.
Tērā pea kei ngā taha o waho ake o ngā rohe tōrangapū tō rātou ake mana ā-ture, otirā i Te Hononga o Amerika, engari ehara tēnei i te pēnei i ngā wā katoa, i Te Hononga o Te Hononga o Ingarangi e noho ana te nuinga o ngā waho o waho ake i roto i ngā rohe whakahaere o ngā taone.
I ētahi atu, pērā ki a Morocco, France, me te nui o Te Hononga o Amerika, he maha ngā wahi o waho ake e noho motuhake ana, e whakahaeretia ana rānei hei wāhi o tētahi rohe tatanga nui ake pēnei i te rohe, rohe, tawhenua rānei.
Ka whakamahia ngā kupu tapawhānui me ngā tapa taone whakawaho hei wehewehe i waenganui i ngā wāhi tino kiato e noho tawhiti ana ki te pūtahi o te taone (e kore e kōrerotia hei 'wahi o waho ake' i te nuinga o ētahi atu whenua), me ngā waho o waho ake ki raro i ngā pātiki o te rohe taone.
I Aotearoa, ko te nuinga o ngā wahi o waho ake kāore i te tautuhia ā-ture, e āhei ana ki te pōraru i te wāhi e tīmata ai, e whakamutua ai rātou.
Ko te kupu takiwā i whakamahia tuatahitia e te tangata whenua rōmana, ko Cicero, e pā ana ki nga whare nui me nga pānga i hangaia e nga pūkana rangatira o Roma i runga i nga pātiki o te taone.
Tae noa ki te waenganui o te rau tau 19, e tupu ana nga wāhi kotahi matua tuatahi o London i te taone (kātahi ko te nui rawa o te ao) ka pōauau, ā, kāore i te noho pūmau.
I tae te rārangi ki Harrow i te tau 1880.
Na te tari mākete o te Tūtaki i whakaputa te kupu "Metro-land" i te tau 1915 i te wā ka noho te Kaiārahi ki te Raina Toronga ko te kaiārahi whenua-Metro, he utu i te 1d.
Ko tētahi wāhi, he urupare tēnei ki te ohorere o te hapa o te toa i waenganui i nga tauranga tokomaha i te Pakanga Tuatahi o te Ao, e takea ana ki nga āhuatanga pōhara o te oranga; he whakapono i whakarāpopototia ki tētahi pouaka noho o te wā "kāore e taea e koe te tūmanako kia whiwhi i tētahi iwi whānui A1 i roto i ngā kāinga C3" – e pā ana ki ngā taunahatanga moana ā-hoia o te wā.
I whakawateatia hoki e te Pūrongo ngā paerewa mōkito e hiahiatia ana mō te hanganga i te taha kotahi anō; i roto i tēnei ko te ture mo te kōpapae whare mōrahi me a rātau whakaritenga, a, ka whakatūtohu i ngā tūtohutanga mo te tau tōtika o ngā rūma moe me ētahi atu rūma mō ia whare.
I roto noa i te tekau tau i tino nui haere te rahi o nga taha o te tau.
I tipu a Levittown hai tauira taketake o nga whare i hangaia nuitia.
Ko te hokohoko taonga me ngā ratonga rerekē i tētahi tauwāhi matua me te kore haere ki ngā tauwāhi maha, i āwhina ki te pupuri i ngā pokapū hokohoko i tētahi wae o ēnei wahi o ngā tawhito hou i hangaia i te iwi whānui.
I āwhina te Ture Huarahi o te kotahi mano 1956 ki te whakatakoto i te hanganga o te 64,000 hīkoi puta noa i te iwi mā te utu e $26 mano miriona hei whakamahi, nāna i āwhina ki te hono ngāwari atu ki ēnei pūtahi hokohoko.
Ko ētahi o ngā wahi o waho ake i whāngai noa i ngā taone nunui i reira te haerenga o te kaurapa ki ngā mahi i te taone nui.
He tino pūkei whare te hua.
I te toko 16 miriona ngā hōia e taea ana, ohorere ana te haere ki te hoko whare.
I hokona mai e ngā kaiwhakawhanake he whenua wātea i waho tonu o te taone, i tāutatia he whare pukapuka i runga anō i te nuinga o ngā hoahoa, i whakarato huarahi me ngā whaipainga, i te tauomanga rānei o nga kaiwhakahaere ā iwi kāinga ki te hanga kura.
Tērā pea ka whiwhi nga hōia ki tētahi, he tino hahaka iho te utu.
Na te whakawhanaketanga o ngā ture hunaonga i whakangārahu te tupunga o ngā tawhā o waho ake, i te whakawhānui me te tini o nga mahi hou i te kawenga.
Ko te āhua o African-Americans me ētahi atu tāngata tae ka noho whānui tonu ki roto i nga uho pōauau o te pōharatanga o te taone.
I muri i te Pakanga Nui II, ka whakaritea e te Wāteatanga o ngā moni FHA he pūtea whare i waho o Amerika.
Na te tupu o te ohaoha i Te Hononga o Amerika i whakahauhau kia whānui haere i ngā tāone o Amerika e hiahiatia ana he moni nui mo nga hanganga me ngā kāinga hou.
Ko te rautaki whirinoa ko te hoahoa tika o "ngā taone hou, me te parenga o ngā tātua kākāriki huri noa i ngā tāone."
I whakateretia tēnei tukanga e te hunga pānga ā-iwi mo te whakawhanake i tēnei tukanga pērā ki te whakawhāiti i nga pēke me ētahi atu whare wāhi whakatārewa.
Ināianei ko Virginia Beach te taone nui rawa i Virginia katoa, kua hipa atu i te nuinga o te tokomaha o tōna tāone matua e noho tata ana, ko Nōrfolk.
He ōrautanga nui ake o te mā (ehara i te Hehipa, i ētahi wāhi, he Hehipa) me te ōrautanga iti iho o ngā tangata whenua o ētahi atu rōpū matata i tua atu i ngā rohe taone.
I te whakataurite ki ngā rohe o tāwāhi, ko te tikanga he nui ake te kiato o ngā iwi whānui, he teitei ake ngā paerewa ora, he matatini ake ngā pūnaha huarahi, he maha ake ngā pātaka māuiui me ngā wharekai, he iti iho hoki te pāmu me te ātea noho.
Engari, o tēnei iwi whānui ā tatanga, i te tau 2001 tata tonu te hawhe i noho i roto i ngā wāhi kōpaka iti, kotahi anake i roto i te rima e noho ana i tētahi takiwā "taone."
Puta noa i Cānada, he whānui tonu nga kaupapa mo te ara pukoni.
Kua puta te nuinga o te iwi whānuitanga o ngā rohe nui rawa atu o Cānada i ngā rohe nui rawa atu o Canada (Nui Ake Torōna, Ko te Montreal, me Vancouver Nui Ake) ki ngā rohe kāore i te uho.
He mea pēnei nā te whakangākau me te tapuwae matawhenua rahi i roto i nga taitapa o te taone.
I te tatauranga 2016, ko te Taone o Calgary he taupori 1,239,220, engari ko te rohe o Calgary Metropolitan he taupori 1,392,609, e tohu ana ko te nuinga o te iwi i te Calgary CMA e noho ana i roto i nga rohe o te taone.
I te UK, e rapu ana te kāwanatanga kia whakaritea he kōpaka kāitirawa mōkito ki ngā aronui whare hou kua whakaaetia i ngā wāhi o England ki te Tonga ki te Rāwhiti.
Ka kitea ngā wahi o waho ake i Guadalajara, Mexico Taone nui, i Monterrey, i te nuinga o nga pa nunui.
I te tipu haere o te akomanga waenga me te akomanga o runga-akomanga kua piki ake, kua piki ake te hunga taangata iti, tino nui "nga pa ngaro" "i Mexico, campamentos i Chile, barriadas i Peru, villa miserias i Argentina, asentamientos i Guatemala Tuhinga o Brazil.
I roto i tētahi kēhi whakaahuatanga o Africa ki te Tonga, kua hangaia he whare RDP.
I ētahi wāhi pērā i a Klang, i Subang Jaya me Petaling Jaya, ko ngā wahi o waho ake nei ko te uho o ēnei wāhi.
I roto i te pūnaha kotahi, ko te nuinga o ngā haere mai i tētahi wae ki tētahi atu mōtete, e hiahiatia ana kia tomo mai ngā motokā ki te huarahi kaipoki, ahakoa pēhea te poto, te roa rānei o te tawhiti.
Mēnā ka pā he motokā i runga i tētahi huarahi pūkoro, mēnā rānei ka tautāwhitia te rere e te hanga huarahi, kātahi ka kore take te huarahi katoa kia ūkuia rā anō te paraka.
Mā tēnei ka whakahauhau i ngā haerenga motokā ahakoa he iti iho te tawhiti, neke atu rānei i ngā rau, ine rānei (tērā pea ka tae atu ki ētahi hāwhe, mita rānei, nā te whatunga huarahi rānei).
I te huihuinga, ko enei roopu taake e rua he tohu mo te moni kaore ano kia raupatuhia mo nga moni pea ka tiimata te kaha o nga taone nui, ina koa kei te raru ratou.
Ko nga waiata French pera i a La Zone na Fréhel (1933), Aux quatre coins de la banlieue na Damia (1936), Ma banlieue na Reda Caire (1937), ko Banlieue na Robert Lamoureux (1953), i whakaoho marama nga rohe o Paris mai i nga tau 1930 .
I te wa ano ka hiahia te whare pikitia French ki nga panoni taone o nga taone nui, me nga kiriata penei i te Mon oncle na Jacques Tati (1958), ko L'Amour na Maurice Pialat (1961) e rua, e toru ranei nga mea e mohio ana ahau mo ia na Jean-Luc Godard (1967).
Ko te waiata 1962 "Pouaka Iti" na Malvina Reynolds e whakamarama ana i te whanaketanga o te taone nui me nga uara o te bourgeois me te whakahounga, i te wa o te waiata 1982 Subdivision na te roopu Kanata Rush e korero ana mo te taone nui, pera ano me Rockin 'the Suburbs na Ben Folds. "
Kei runga ake o te Hedge tetahi o nga pakiwaitara whakakotahi i tuhia e Michael Fry me T. Lewis.
Ko nga pouaka whakaata o Ingarangi penei i te Ko Te Ora Pai, Nga Ngererehua me Te Hinga me te Whakatika o Reginald Perrin e whakaatu ana i te taone nui me te pai o te whakahaere engari kaore e ngenge, ana ko nga kainoho i te ahua rite ki te haangai ki te haurangi ranei.
He kāinga rānei te kāinga, he hapori tangata rānei, he rahi ake i te neke, engari he iti iho i te taone (ahakoa he rite tonu te whakamahinga o te kupu ki te whakaahua i ngā nekeneke me ngā taone iti iho), ā, ko te nuinga tangata e tata ana mai i ngā rau ki te takitahi mano.
Nā tēnei anō i whakaahei te mahi me te mahi, me te whakawhanaketanga o nga mahi maha.
He tino rerekē te rahi o ēnei kāinga.
Kei te tuawhenua nga taangata i nga tuawhenua engari ko nga kerurahan he wehenga taone nui.
Ko te desa, ko te kelurahan ranei te wehewehe o te kecamatan (rohe), ka mutu ko te waahanga o tetahi takiwa (takiwa) ko tetahi taone ranei (taone nui).
I Malaysia, ka whakatauhia he kainga hei takiwa me te 10,000 neke atu ranei te iti o nga tangata.
Katoa nga Mahometa o te kainga Malay, o Indonesia ranei e hiahia ana kia inoi, kia whiwhi ki nga manaakitanga a Allah i roto i te ao a muri atu.
I mua he nui nga kainga kaainga o te whenua o Singapore engari ko nga whanaketanga hou me nga mahi taone nui kua kite kua whakaweto. Ko Kampong Lorong Buangkok te kainga whakamutunga i ora i te tuawhenua o te whenua.
Ko te kainga o Vietnam te tohu mo te ahuwhenua Ahia.
I Slovenia, ko te kupu selo e whakamahia ana mo nga kaainga iti (iti iho i te 100 nga tangata) me nga mita; te kupu Slovene vas e whakamahia ana i te katoa o Slovenia.
Ka rite pea ki te Sanskrit penei i te kupu Afgan deh me te kupu indonesia desa.
Tata ki te 46% o nga tāngata heke katoa kua rerekē i to rātau kāinga mai i tētahi taone ki tētahi.
Ko te roopu whakahaere iti rawa o te Emepaea o Ruhia, he puia, tona Soviet ranei o muri ranei o Ruhia, he selsoviet, i te nuinga o te wa i roto i te whare rangatira ka awhi i etahi kaainga tata.
Ahakoa ko nga kaiparau o te puku o Ruhia i noho ki tetahi kainga i te taha o te rangatira o te rangatira, he whanau Cossack e noho ana i runga i tana ake paamu, e kiia ana ko te khutor.
Heoi ano, tetahi atu momo whakataunga iti kua whakatauhia ki Iukereiniini hei selysche (селище).
E tohu ana rātau i tētahi momo wāhi ā-taiwhenua iti tērā pea he Khutir, he kāinga kaihīika, he hapu rānei.
Heoi, ko te pohehe i te nuinga o nga wa ka karohia i te taha o nga whakataunga taone nui ma te korero ki a raatau ma te whakamahi i te smt haapoto e toru-reta hei utu.
I ahu mai rātau i te wā o te whakahōutanga Stolypin i te omua o te rau tau-20.
Ka taea hoki ngā kāinga nui ake te kiia Flecken rānei Markt rānei e ai ki te rohe.
Hei tauira, i nga waahi penei i te Lincolnshire Wolds, ka kitea nga kaainga i te taha o te raina puna i te haurua o te taha pukepuke, ka ahu mai ko nga whakataunga raina puna, me nga punaha tuwhera o te whenua huri noa i te kainga.
Kua ngaro ētahi kāinga (hei tauira, kua mahue i nga kāinga o roto matua), i ētahi wā, ka mahue i te hāhi, i tētahi whare rorohiko rānei, ā, i ētahi wā, kaore he mea, engari he tuki i nga mara.
Ko ētahi atu kāinga kua tipu, kua honohono, ā, he maha ngā wa ka hangaia poka pū i roto i te nuinga o ngā taone nui - pēnei i a Hampstead, London me Didsbury i Manchester.
Mehemea he tawhiti rawa atu i te pōturi o te oranga o nāianei, e tohu ana he mārire, he hāngai, mēnā he iti te titiro whakaroto.
Nā ēnei (pēnei i a Murton, County Durham) i tipu i nga nekehanga waipiro i te ngaromanga o te kokopapatanga o te rau tau e 20, he tere te tupu o tō rātau iwi, ā, ko nga rangatira koha i hanga he whare noho hou, he pātaka, he pānui, he hāhi.
I hangaia a Maltby i raro i te maru o te Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company me te maha o nga waahi tuwhera me nga waahanga maara.
He pāpara, he pānga rānei, he toa, he parakimete rānei to te kāinga noa iho.
Heoi, kaore he mahi a ētahi pāhi ā iwi, he parāoa, he kaunihera taone, he hui rānei o te pārae.
I Kotirana, he rite ano te kaunihera hapori, ahakoa, ahakoa he tinana whai mana, kaore o raatau mana whakahaere.
Ko te rohe o Danniyeh e toru tekau ma ono nga kainga iti, kei roto ko Almrah, Kfirchlan, Kfirhbab, Hakel al Azimah, Siir, Bakhoun, Miryata, Assoun, Sfiiri, Kharnoub, Katteen, Kfirhabou, Zghartegrein, Ein Qibil.
Ko Dinniyeh he taiao pai e kapi ana i nga ngahere, nga kari me nga ngahere.
Ko ngā kāinga i te tonga o Hiria (Hauran, Jabal al-Druze), te raki ki te rāwhiti (te moutere o Hiriani) me ngā Pepurangi Awa o Oroniti i runga i te mahi ahuwhenua, ko te nuinga o ngā mara, ko te nuinga o ngā manga me ngā hua.
Ko nga taone Mediterranean i Hiria, penei i a Tartus me Latakia he momo taone ano.
Ko ia tāpaetanga he "pueblo" ki te kore e whakarewahia mā te ture ki te kāwai panuku.
Heoi anō, he ahuwhānui tēnei; i nga kōrero maha, he kāinga he raupapa nui ake i nga pa iti rawa o te kāwanatanga.
I ētahi wā, tērā pea ka āhua noho tahi te kāinga ki te taone, ki te taone rānei, ahakoa tērā pea he kāwanatanga whakatōpū te kāinga e rua.
Ko Hempstead, ko te kāinga nui rawa, e 55,000 ngā tangata; he pai ake te taitapa i ētahi o nga pa o te kāwanatanga.
E 75,101 nga nohonga o te kāinga o Ahuaine Teitei, nō te nuinga o te tatauranga o te tau e 2010.
Ka taea e nga kāinga te whakauru whenua ki nga taiwhenua maha, ahakoa he maha nga taiwhenua.
Ko te kāinga nui rawa ko Menomonee Falls, e nui atu i te 32,000 ngā tangata.
I Maryland, ko tetahi takiwa kua tohua "kainga o ..." "akene he taone whakauru kua whakauruhia he takoha taake motuhake ranei."
I tērā wā, i whakamahia e ngā tauine tawhito he kaha tūturu i roto i ō rātou rohe whakahaere.
Ko nga taone katoa o Hausa e noho ana ko Magaji (te Upoko o te Nuu) hei whakautu ki tana Hakimi (koromatua) kei te taone nui.
He whare paru ō rātau, he tuanui kākāriki, pēnei i te nuinga o nga kāinga i te Raki, he tirohanga noa iho te kōpae konutea.
Ko ētahi he waimarie te whai poka i roto i te tawhititanga.
Ko te atlas he kohinga mapi; te tikanga he putunga mahere o te Whenua tetahi takiwa whenua ranei.
Ka tuku tēnei taitara i te whakamāramatanga a Mercator o te kupu hei whakaahuatanga o te hanganga me te āhua o te ao nui katoa, ehara i te mea ko te kohinga mahere anake.
He rite tonu te pukapuka tohutoro ki te pukapuka tohutoro.
Kei roto i te kātata, he rārangi aratau (he rite tonu te kiia ko te "aratau”) ka honoa ki ngā pūwāhi o te tiketike ōrite (teitei) i runga ake i tētahi taumata kua tukuna, pēnei i te taumata moana taurite."
Ko te rōnaki o te taumahi e tika ana i ngā wā katoa ki ngā raina aratau.
He piko ngā raina aratau, he tōtika, he ranunga rānei o ngā raina e rua i runga mahere e whakamārama ana i te whakawhitinga o tētahi mata tūturu, whakapae rānei me tētahi, ētahi rānei o ngā rererangi whakapae.
I te tau 1701, i whakamahia e Edmond Halley ēnei rārangi (tapawhā) i runga i tētahi tūtohi rerekētanga autō.
I te tau 1791, i whakamahia e J. L. Dupain-Triel tētahi mahere o Wīwī e J. Dupain-Triel ngā raina aratau i ngā wā mita e 20, he keti, he teitei-tūnga me tētahi wāhanga poutū.
Ko nga Isobats kaore i te whakamahia noa i runga i nga mahere moana tae atu ki era o Russia mai i te 1834, me nga mea o Ingarangi mai i te 1838.
No te mutunga o te 1944, i pai tonu a John K. Wright ki te momotu, engari kaore i tae noa ki te whakamahi whanui.
Ahakoa he ngana ki te tīpako i tētahi paerewa kotahi, kua ora katoa ēnei whirinoa ki tēnei wā.
He uaua te whakatūnga o ngā pou huarere ki tētahi raina aratau (ina pēnei, ka tohu tēnei i tētahi inenga e ōrite ana ki te uara o te aratau).
I roto i te huarere, ka whakahekea ngā pēhanga pakeke e whakaaturia ana ki te taumata moana, ehara i ngā pēhanga mata i ngā tauwāhi mahere.
Ko ngā Isallobars he raina e hono ana ki ngā pūwāhi o te huringa pēhanga ōrite i roto i tētahi wā motuhake.
Ko ngā rōnaki Isallobaric he wae hira o te hau i a rātou e whakanui ana, e whakaiti ana rānei i te hau papatipu.
Ko tētahi isoterm i te 0 °C e kiia ana ko te taumata whakatio.
Mai i ēnei aratau, ka taea te whakatau te āhua o te whenua ahuwhānui.
I roto i te kātata, ko te wā aratau te rerekētanga huarere i waenga i ngā raina aratau pātata.
E rua neke atu rānei ngā raina aratau hanumi e tohu ana i tētahi pari.
I te nuinga o te wā aratau, kei te ōrite ngā wā aratau puta noa i tētahi mahere, engari he okotahi.
Ahakoa ko te whakawhitinga i te raina whakawhitiwhiti e tohu ana i te aupiki, i te heke rānei i te tūpāpaku ka whakaritea mai i ngā tapanga i runga i ngā utu.
Ka whakaaturia te timatanga waikawa ki runga i ngā mahere me ngā kōhukihu.
Ka whakamahia hoki ngā raina aratau hei whakaatu mōhiohio tauwāhi kore i te ohaoha.
He painga tēnei raina mō te tohu i ngā ahu (rahi rānei) neke atu i te rua ngā ahu (rānei) i runga i ngā kauwhata ahu-rua.
I te whakamaoritanga i nga whakaahua hihiani, ko te isodop te raina o te tere Doppler rite, a ko te isoecho he raina whakaata whakaara rite.
Ko te tae raina te kōwhiringa o ētahi o ngā pānui e hāngai ana ki te whakaaturanga.
E pā ana te momo raina mēnā he mārō te raina aratau taketake, pīhono, iraira, pakaru rānei i tētahi atu tauira hei waihanga i te pānga e hiahiatia ana.
Ko te tohu ā-tau te tikanga o te whakakaupapa i ngā uara taurite o ngā raina aratau.
Mēnā kāore ngā raina aratau i te tapa tau me ngā raina pātata, he ōrite te kāhua (he ōrite te taumaha, te tae me te momo), kāore e taea te tautuhi i te aronga o te rōnaki mai i ngā raina aratau anake.
Mā tētahi mahere aratau i tapaina tika e āwhina te pūpānui ki te whakamārama tere i te āhua o te whenua.
Kātahi ka inetia ngā taururuku o ētahi atu wāhi mai i te pūwāhi mana tata rawa mā te tirotiro.
Ko tēnei tītohunga e kiia ana ko te neke tātā.
He maha ake ngā mahi hākaha pērā ki te Pewa Rāwhiti o Ūropi ki te Rāwhiti (1816-1855) me te Rūtere Pūtauwhānui Nui o Īnia (1802-1871) i roa kē atu, engari he nui ake ngā whakataunga tika o te hanga o te Pororapa Whenua.
He whakamahukitanga āwhīwhiwhi o te taumata moana ko te datum WGS 84, he pororapa, he tautuhinga tika ake ko te Tauira Tō ā-Papa ā-Ao 2008 (EGM2008), mā te whakamahi i te 2,159 hāwherane.
Ki te kore e mōhiotia, ko te kupu pae e tohu ana ki te pae paetata.
Ka rerekē te neke i waenganui i ngā tātaku e rua ake, mai i tētahi wāhi ki tētahi atu i roto i tētahi whenua, rohe rānei, ā, ka taea te noho mai i te kore ki te rau mita (ētahi hīmita rānei mō ētahi motu mamao).
Hei tauira, i Poihākena he rerekētanga 200 ine (700 waewae) i waenga i ngā taunga GPS kua whirihoratia i te GDA (he mea hanga i runga i te WGS 84 paerewa huri noa) me te AGD (ka whakamahia mō te nuinga o ngā mahere paetata), he hapa nui kāore e whakaaetia mō ētahi taupānga, pēnei i te tirotiro, i te tauwāhi pae rānei mō te hopureo scuba.
Nā te mea ka rerekē ngā ira radii me ngā pū waenganui rerekē o te tohutoro, ka āhei tētahi wāhi tauwhāiti i runga i te Ao te nui o ngā taunga rerekē i runga anō i te kohikohinga i whakamahia hei mahi i te inenga.
Ko te tohutoro tino pūnoa o Datums e whakamahia ana i Amerika ki te Raki ko NAD27, NAD83, me WGS 84.
"Ko tēnei datum, kua tohua hei NAD 83 ... e ai ki te whakaritenga o ngā piro e 250,000 tae atu ki ngā pou Doppler tawhio 600 e aukati ana i te pūnaha ki tētahi taketake o te pūwhāiti ā-papa.""
Koia te tāpare tohutoro ka whakamahia e te Tari Parenga U.S. (DoD) ā, kua tautuhia e te National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) (i mua rā te Pouwhanga Whakangungu, kātahi ko te National Imagery and Mapping Agency).
I whakamahia hei tāpare tohutoro mō te pāohotanga GPS Ephemerides (orbits) tīmata i te 23 o Konuari 1987.
I waiho hei tāpare tohutoro mo nga āwhiotanga pāohotanga i te 28 o Pipiri 1994.
I whakaaetia te WGS 84 (G873) hei tāpare tohutoro mō ngā atārangi pāohotanga i te 29 o Hānuere 1997.
Ko te WGS 84 te arowhānui taunoa mō ngā taururuku e rokirokitia ana ki ngā wae GPS whakakāinga, arumoni hoki.
Hei tauira, ko te rerekētanga whātua i waenganui i te wehenga o Te paenga o Uganda, i te Pereti o Āwherika me tētahi wāhi i te paenga o Ekuatoa, i te Pereti o Amerika ki te Tonga, neke atu i te 0.0014 ngā pewa i ia tau.
Ko te nuinga o te maherenga, pērā i roto i tētahi whenua kotahi, kaore i te tīpapa pereti.
I kii a Ptolemy i a ia me te tino whangai i te ahopou me te ahopou, kaua ki te mehua i te ahopae i te roa o te ra waenga.
I timata ano te kaimatai Matematika ki Uropi whai muri i te whakaoratanga o Maximus Planudes i nga tuhinga a Ptolemy i mua atu o te 1300; ko te tuhinga i whakamaorihia ki te reo Latina i Florence e Jacobus Angelus tata ki te 1407.
Kātahi ka kōwhiria te maherenga tino tika o te pūnaha taururuku ara ki runga ki taua huamanu, e kīa nei ko tētahi pūnaha tohutoro teretere, tētahi tātata rānei.
φ, phi rānei) o tētahi pito i runga i te mata o te Ao ko te koki i waenganui i te rererangi ki te pae ki te pae tika e hīpae ana i taua pito, tae noa atu ki te (tata rānei ki) te pokapū o te Ao.
Ko ngā tūru katoa he haurua o nga porotiti nui (e huaina ana he porowhita nunui), e ūngutu ana ki ngā Tūtohi ki te Raki, ki te Tonga.
Ko te pū o Nānai, he 180°W me te 180°E. Ehara tēnei i te āhua o te Rā Ao Whānui, e wehe atu ana i tēnei i roto i ngā wāhi maha mō ngā take tōrangapū, i ngā take pai hoki, tae atu ki waenganui o Rūhia ki te rāwhiti, ki te uru ki te uru o ngā Motu o Aleutian.
Ko nga ruruku i runga i te mapi ko te tikanga ki te raki o N me te taha ki te rawhiti o E, e pa ana ki te takenga kua tohua.
I te papawhenua, ko te pae rārangi he taururuku matawhenua e tauwhāiti ana i te tūnga ki te raki-ki te-tonga o tētahi pito i runga i te mata o te Ao.
Kei te whakamahi tahitia te rārangi me te āhuatanga roa hei whakapūtā i te tauwāhi pū o ngā āhuahira i runga i te mata o te Ao.
Ko te hipanga tuarua he whakaaro ki te tāwhara mā te mata tohutoro māmā ake pāngarau.
Ko ngā raina pae taimau me te tuwhā tahi he mea whākaka i runga i te mata tohutoro.
I te mea he maha ngā pororapa tohutoro rerekē, kāore i te ahurei te pae o tētahi āhuahira i runga i te mata: he uaua tēnei i roto i te paerewa ISO e kī ana "kāore i te whakarite whāiti katoa o te pūnaha tohutoro taururu, ngā rōruru (he paetae me te orure) he rangirua i te pai rawa, ā, kāore i te tino kino."
Ko te rererangi puta noa i waenganui i te Whenua, ā, ko te hurihanga ki te tuaka takahuringa e whakawhiti ana i te mata i tētahi porohita nui e kiia nei ko te Paerewa.
Ka kōrerorerotia katoatia te rerekētanga wā i roto i te tuhipānui mo te honga pakīhi.
Ka whakahokia te āhuatanga i te wā o Huna, i te wā e pā ana te rā ki te Kūpapa o te Kanapu.
Nā te mea kua tautuhia te pae ki te manaaki ki tētahi pororapa, he rerekē te tūnga o tētahi wāhi hoatu ki ia pororapa: kāore e taea e te tangata te whakapūtā tika i te pae me te roanga o te āhuatanga matawā me te kore whakapūtā i te porotītaha e whakamahia ana.
Me āta whakamahi te pae matawhenua.
Ko te arotakenga o te tau tōpu tawhiti tūmatanui he tauwaenga ki te maha o ngā akoranga i roto i te pūwharatanga mahere me te pūwhiti mahere.
E rua ngā tikanga whai haere tonu.
Ina tahuri mai i te whakariterite, i te hāngai rānei ki te rōrahi, e rua ngā whitiauau o Newton-Raphson e tuku ana i te tika tōtika taurua.
Kai roto i te kotahi meneti nga rerekētanga e whakaaturia ana ki runga i te tā.
Tērā pea ka kitea te huringa i waenganui i ngā taururuku mātao me te Kariri i roto i te taururuku o te tahuringa.
Ko te ahuwhānui kāore te poutū pono i tētahi wāhi i runga i te mata e ōrite ana ki te pūnoa ki te pororapa tohutoro, ki te pūnoa rānei ki te mata.
He taururuku matawhenua a Longono e whakapūtā ana i te tūnga ki te rāwhiti-ki te hauauru o tētahi pito i runga i te mata o te Ao, i te mata rānei o te tinana rangi.
Ko te tauwhāinga tuatahi, e haere tata ana ki te Taiwhanga Ariki, Greenwich, o Ingarangi, kua tautuhia he 0° whakaroa ma te hui.
Ko te wā paetata (hei tauira mai i te tūnga o te rā) he rerekē ki te āhua roa, he rerekētanga o te 15° roa e ōrite ana ki tētahi rerekētanga haora kotahi i te wā paetata.
He ngāwari noa iho te kaupapa, engari i te whakaharatau i te kimi tikanga tōtika mo te whakatau i te āhuatanga o te rangirua, ka hiahiatia e ētahi o nga hinengaro pūtaiao tino nui.
I puta tana tūnga tuatahi i Arehanaria.
I whakamahia e ia tētahi tau matua puta noa i nga Moutere Canary, kia pai ai ngā uara hākore katoa.
Ka haere tonu ngā kaitākaro hūhuki me ngā Mohimotu ki te whakawhanake i ēnei whakaaro, he nui ngā tauwāhi hōu, ā, i te nuinga o te wā ka pai ake i runga i ngā raraunga a Ptolemy.
I nga Wā o Waenganui, ka ora ake te āronga o te papawhenua ki te uru, i te nui o te haerenga, ā, ka tīmata te mōhiotanga ki ngā mōhiotanga o Arapia mā te hoapā ki Paniora, ki Awherika ki te Raki.
E rua nga nganatanga a Christopher Columbus ki te whakamahi i ngā āraitanga marama kia kitea ai tōna ātaahua, te tuatahi i Te Motu o Saona, i te 14 o Mahuru 1494 (heke tuarua), ā, ko te tuarua i Tauaika i te 29 o Hēpuari 1504 (whā o nga rerenga).
I te tuatahi he pūrere kitenga, ka panonihia e ngā whanaketanga i te hōwhe rau e whai ake nei hei utauta inenga tōtika.
I runga i te whenua, ka kitea e te wa mai i te whakawhanaketanga o ngā karaka whāiti me ngā karaka tāpiri tae noa ki te waenganui o te Rau tau 18, te nui o ngā wāhi i whakaritea ki tōna tika tonu, i te nuinga o te wā me ngā hapa iti iho i te waeine, ā, tata tonu atu ki roto i te 2-3°.
He uaua kē atu te kitenga tika i roto i te āmai moana i runga i te whenua, ā, kaore e pai te mahi o nga karaka whakarerekē i ēnei here.
E rua nga taumata utu i tukuna e ia, he rongoā i roto i te 1° me te 0.5°.
I tautokona, i utua tēnei mahi e ngā mano pauna mai i te Poari o Longitude, engari i whawhai ia kia whiwhi moni ia tae noa ki te utu tōrunga o te £20,000, kātahi anō ka whiwhi utu tāpiri i te tau 1773 i muri i te whakararurarutanga o te pāremata.
Ko te tawhiti o te Lunar i whakamahia i muri i te 1790.
I tere te mōhio ka taea te whakamahi i te waea hai tuku i tētahi tohu wā mo te manawa tūturu.
I whakatūria e te Uiuinga he mekameka o ngā tau i maheretia ki Amerika Pū me te Tonga, me Ngā Iniihi ki te Uru, ki Hapanihi rānei, o Haina i ngā tau 1874–90.
I rerekē tēnei i te wā ka wātea mai te waea ahokore i te tōmua o te Rau tau-20.
I whakamahia whānuitia nga punaha whakatere irirangi i muri o te Pakanga Tuarua o te Ao.
I te aweretanga o te whakahekenga autō, i kitea katoatia nga tikanga āta mahi.
Mā te tatau i te rerekētanga wā i tōna tauwāhi me te Wā Arowhānui (UTC) pea e whakatauria ai te roanga o te wā.
Ka whakamahia te kupu tata nā te mea kāore pea te ira i te pokapū o te rohe wā; ko ngā rohe wā hoki e tautuhia ana i te tōrangapū, kia kore ai o rātou pānga me ngā rohenga e takoto i runga i ngā taumata i ngā taurearea o te 15°.
Ko te aronga paerewa aowhānui (ISO 6709)— he tōrunga te Rāwhiti - e ōrite ana ki tētahi pūnaha taururuku Cartesian ringa-matau, ki te Pou ki te Raki.
Mai i tērā wā ka neke atu rātau ki te whakataetae arowhānui.
Ko te mātao te āhua ka mauria e te mata moana i raro i te āhua o te tō ā-papa o te Ao, tae atu ki te tō-ā-papa me te takahuringa o Te Ao, mehemea i ngaro ētahi atu āhuatanga pēnei i te hau me te tai pari.
Ka taea anake te mōhiotia mā roto i ngā inenga tō ā-papa me ngā tatauranga whānui.
Ahakoa he hāereere a te Ao ōkiko o +8,848 m (Maunga Everest) me te −10,984 (Marianas Trench), ko te ine mahora mai i tētahi pororapa mata mai i te +85 m (Tiorangi) ki te −106 m (Īnia ki te tonga), he iti iho i te 200 m te tāpeke.
Mehemea i whakawhitiwhiti te nuinga whenua i runga i nga kauhanga, awa rānei, ka tata tonu te rite o te taumata moana o aua awa ki te puia.
Ko te tikanga, i a ia e haereere ana i te kaipuke, e kore tetahi e mahara ki nga whakareretanga o te waewae; kei te huri tonu te poutū paetata (rārangi paramu) i ngā wā katoa ki te pātapatanga o te whārangi paetata ki reira.
Nā te mea ko ngā aorangi GPS, e āwhiti ana i te waenganui o te tō ā-papa o te Ao, ka taea anake te ine te teitei e pātahi ana ki tētahi huamanu tohutoro geocentric.
He mātiti kei roto i ā rātou pūmanawa tā ngā pūwhiwhi GPS o nāianei, mai i te tūnga o nāianei, te teitei o te geoid (hei tauira, te EGM-96 geoid) i runga i te Porotitia Geodetic System (WGS) o te Ao.
Ki te hipokina taua hurihanga ki te wai, e kore te wai e rite ki te teitei i nga wāhi katoa.
Koinei te take he maha ngā pūwhiwhi GPS mauringa he ripanga tirotiro rō-tonu hei whakatau i te teitei i runga ake i te taumata moana.
I wātea tuihonotia ngā hua tuatahi i runga anō i ngā raraunga tawhiti o GOCE i roto i Ngā Hāpua 2010, mā ngā utauta o ngā ratonga kaiwhakamahi mō te Mātaki Mokowā o Ūropi (ESA).
He tino mata whakarawe, a, he āhua whakauru ki te rorohiko.
Ko te ao he tauira mata nō te Whenua, nō ētahi atu tinana o te rangi, o te ao rangi rānei.
Ko te ao tauira o te ao rangi, e kiia ana he ao rangi nui.
Tērā pea ka whakaaturia ngā iwi me ngā taone nunui me te whatunga o ngā raina pae me te paeroa.
I te nuinga o te wā, māna hoki e wehe te āhua o te rangi kia whetū.
Ko te kōrero tuatahi e mōhiotia ana no Strabo, e whakaahua ana i te Ao o Nga Koura, tata ki te 150 KOREro.
He maha nga ao i hangaia ki te mita kotahi, he tauira ā te Ao i te tauine kotahi 1:40 miriona.
Ko te nuinga o ngā ao onāianei kua whakararangia hoki ki ngā whakarara me ngā merihana, kia mōhio ai te tangata ki ngā taunga tauwhāiti o tētahi tauwāhi tauwhāiti.
Ko nga ao tōmua o te ao tuarangi e whakaahua ana i te katoa o te Ao Tawhito i hangaia ki te ao Māori.
He kaitohutohu Tiamana, he kaiwhakatere, he kaihokohoko a Behaim.
I mua i te waihangatanga o te ao, he tino nui te haereere a Behaim.
Ko tētahi atu ao tōmua, ko te Hunt–Lenox Globe, kē.
Tērā pea ko te ao tawhito rawa hei whakaatu i te Ao Hou.
He ao ahua e whakaatu ana i a Amerika na Martin Waldseemueller i hanga i te tau 1507.
Ko Globus IMP, ko ngā pūrere pūkahika-hiko tae atu ki ngā koihi inihi rima ine i whakamahia ki te waka ātea o Rōpūria me Rūhia mai i te tau 1961 ki te 2002 hei taputapu whakaterenga.
I whakaahuatia tēnei tikanga hanga ā-ao i te 1802 i roto i tētahi tuhituhitanga i Te Enipīhi Ingarihi nā George Kearsley.
Kua purua tēnei ki tētahi mīhini e hanga ana i te kōpae ki te hanga hei whakahuahua. .
He "tino nui" ēnei ao, a, he tino utu.
He poka matā o Rōpūrū tōmuri puta noa i Tiamana.
Ko te porowhita nui, e mōhiotia ana hoki he kopaora, o tētahi ao, ko te whakawhitinga o te ao, me te rererangi e tika ana na waenganui i te pūwāhi o te ao.
Ko tēnei kēhi motuhake o tētahi porowhita o tētahi porohita, e ātete ana ki tētahi porohita iti, arā, ko te whakawhitinga o te hurihanga me te rererangi kaore e tika atu i waenganui.
Ko te okotahi he takirua pūwāhi āraikore, arā he nui rawa ngā porowhita nunui.
Ko te roa o te pewa iti o tētahi porohita nui e mau ana he tawhiti i waenganui i ngā pito e rua i runga i te mata o tētahi ao i te āhuahanga o Terimannia, i reira ka huaina aua porohita nui ko Nga Manahana.
Ko tētahi atu porowhita nui ko te tangata e wehe ana i te whenua me nga koparangi wai.
I roto i te kātata, ko te matapae mahere he huarahi hei whakapapapae i te mata o te ao ki roto i te waka rererangi kia taea ai te hanga mahere.
E ai ki te take o te mahere, ka whakaaetia ētahi whakahaweatanga, ā, kāore ētahi; nō reira, he rerekē ngā pūwhitinga mahere e tīari ana hei tiaki i ētahi āhuatanga o te tinana ōrite ki te wātea o ētahi atu āhuatanga.
Ko ngā pūwhitinga he kaupapa o ētahi āpure pāngarau hāngai, tae atu ki te āhuahanga pāhono, te āhuahanga pūwhiti, me ngā kōpaki manifold.
Engari, ko ngā taumahi pāngarau e panoni ana i ngā taururuku mai i te mata kōpiko, he pūwhiti kē, ā, he ngāwari ki te rererangi.
Ko te nuinga o te wā he pai ake te tauira o te Ao me ētahi atu tinana ā-rangi nui hei spheroid oblate, engari he rite tonu te hanga rerekē o ngā ahanoa iti pērā ki ngā aorangi iti.
Nā te mea kāore te mata o te Ao kōpiko i te whakariterite ki tētahi rererangi, mā te tiaki i ngā hanga e ahu mai ki tētahi tauine tāupe, ā, nō reira, ko te whakaaturanga ōrite o ngā wāhi.
Mā te whāinga o te mahere e whakatau ko tēhea te pūwhitinga hei waihanga i te pūtake mō te mahere.
He mōhiohio taunaha ngā huinga raraunga; Kai runga i te tātaku (tauira) i kōwhiria o te Whenua ta rātau kohinga.
Pērā ki te taurite o Tissot, ko te taupoki o te Hōrori-Gottrix i runga anō i ngā infinitesimals, ā, ka whakaahua i te whakawhāwhiti me te titahatanga (māngoingo me te ātete) i ngā whakararurarutanga.
I ētahi wā ka whakamahia ngā tapatoru tuatahi.
Ko tētahi atu huarahi whakakitenga ā-rohe, mā ngā rōnakitanga kiwikiwi, tae rānei, mā tōna uriuri e tohu ana i te nui o te whakahōpututanga angular, te utunga ā-rānei.
Notemea he hikuwaru te hanga tūturu o te Ao, ka ngaro te mōhiohio i tēnei hipanga.
Hei whakataurite, kaore e taea e tētahi te whakapāhekeheke karaka me te kore e haehae, me te hāparangi.)
Ko te tikanga o te pātapa, ka pā atu te mata engari kaore e poro puta noa i te ao; Ko te tikanga o te kōpaka kai te poro te mata i te ao.
Mēnā he whakarara ēnei raina o te pae, pērā ki ngā pūwhitinga pātata, e kiia ana he whakarara paerewa.
Ka pā tēnei mō tētahi matapae porotakaroa, kikokiko rānei i roto i te aronga pūnoa.
He taimau te tauine i runga i ngā raina tōtika katoa e whakaatu mai ana i tētahi tauwāhi.
Ahakoa he pororapa, he pororapa rānei, ko ngā ture e kōrerorerotia ana, kāore i ngaro te ahuwhānui.
Ko te tauira pororapa e whakamahia noatia ana hei hanga i ngā mahere topako me ētahi atu mahere tauine-nui, waenga hoki e tautuhi tika ana i te papa whenua.
Ki te whakataurite ki te pororapa pai rawa atu, ka huri te tauira geoidal i te pūāhuatanga o ngā āhuatanga hira pēnei i te tawhiti, te āhua ritenga me te tauritetanga.
Engari, i ētahi wā ka whakamahia ngā āhuatanga tairite ki te mātao ki te kaupapa mahere, mō ngā tinana pāhīhī anō pēnei i ngā pūrii pēnei i ngā pūrangirangi.
Ka whakaahuatia ngā pūwhitinga e ai ki te whakanoho i tētahi mata nui rawa ki te āhua o te Ao, me whai mai i tētahi mahi tauine tūtohu.
"Ki te pūtake kōmā i runga i te raina i whakaahuatia i roto i tēnei herenga whakamutunga, ko te hua o ngā rerekētanga i waenganui i ngā pūwhitinga toitatata "tūturu" "tūturu"."
E takaia ana tēnei porotakaroa i runga i te Ao, e whakaatatia ana, kātahi ka tākaia.
"Kāore ngā tawhiti ki te tonga-raki i whārōrōtia, kāore rānei i kōpeketia (1): pūwhitiwhiti huarahi, ""pereti tāpiripiri""."
Mai i tēnei matapae e tauine ana i ngā tawhiti ki te tonga-māraki i te taupoki o te whānuitanga o te rāwhiti-ki te hauauru, ka tiakina e ia te wāhi hei raruraru i ngā hanga.
He roa ake ētahi atu taurangi i te pū tauwaenga, ā, e piko whakawaho ana, i te tau waenganui.
Nō reira, he ōrite te mokowā o nga taumata ki te whakarara i tukuna.
He iti te whakahētanga o te mahere conic e hua ana i roto i te tauine, te hanga, me te horahanga tata ki aua whakarara paerewa.
Ka taea te hanga mai i tētahi tirohanga he tawhiti kore rawa atu i te pātapa; r(d) = c hara .
Ko te matapae tirohanga taha-tata, e whakatū ana i te tiro mai i te mokowā i te tawhiti mutunga, nō reira he iti iho i te tua tuarangi katoa, pērā i te The Blue Marble 2012).
Ka toro atu pea te ira motuhake, ngā pito rānei ki tētahi wāhanga raina, ānau rānei inā whakatakotohia.
Azimuthal equidistant: Kei te tiaki i ngā tawhiti mai i waenganui me te tapa.
Nā reira he maha ngā pūwhitinga e tīari ana hei whakamahi i ngā whakamahinga mahere maha me te nui o ngā tauine.
Ko te nuinga o nga wā e puta ana ngā mahere tohutoro o te ao i runga i ngā pūwhitinga whakararuraru.
He matapae mahere porotakaroa te matapae o te Pūwhakaroto i whakaaturia e te kaiwhenua papawhenua me te kaiwhakahaere rorohiko Ggerardus Mercator i te tau 1569.
Hei pānga taha, ko te pūwhitinga o te Pūwhakahaere Tohuwhānui e whakamakoha atu ana i te rahi o ngā ahanoa i waho o te wehenga.
Engari, mō te āhuahanga o te rā, tērā pea i hangaia ēnei mahere i runga anō i te pūwhitinga porotakaroa pū ōrite, he pū whakawhāiti i te pū o te pūwhitinga gnomonic, koia te take mo te rā.
Heoi, he ngāwari tēnei, he ngākau noa iho, he take whakakotahitanga.
"I huaina te mahere e Te Tangata Aroha: ""I whakatikaina he whakaahuatanga hou, whakarahi hoki o te Ao hei whakamahi i nga kaitahi"."
I te roanga o nga tau i whakangāwaritia ai ētahi tini mahi tinihanga, engari ahakoa he aha te whakahoahoatanga a MehōriakiKiki me tōna āheitanga ki ngā ripanga mokowhitiwhiti i hangaia e TeKikio, tērā pea ka āwhinatia ōna mahi.
Heoi anō, i hangaia nga pāngarau, engari kāore anō kia pānuitia e te matataua ko Tōta Harriot e tīmata tata ana ki te 1589.
Nā ngā raruraru matua e rua i ārai i tana taupānga inamata: ko te āheitanga o te whakatau i te āhuatanga i te moana, he tika rawa, ā, ko ngā aronga autō, kaua ko ngā aronga karere, i whakamahia ki te whakaterenga.
Heoi anō, kāore i tīmata ki te whārahi i ngā mahere o te ao tae noa ki te rau tau 19, i te wā i tino oti te raruraru o te whakatūnga manawa.
Nā ēnei āwhina, i āta whakaitia e ngā kaiwhakaputa te whakamahinga o te pūwhiti i te wā o te rau tau e 20.
I te whakaotinga o tēnei, ko te whāwhā ki te rawhiti-ki te hauauru o te mahere, e piki atu ana i te tawhiti atu i te paenga, e haere tahi ana i te pūwhitinga o Mercator e te whāwhā ki te raki-ki te tonga, kia rite ai te tauine ki te rawhiti–uru ki te tauine ki te raki-ki te tonga, me whakarite he mahere whakataurite.
Ki ngā pae nui ake i te 70° ki te raki, ki te tonga rānei kāore e taea te whakamahi te matapae o te Pūwhakarite, nā te mea ka tino nui rawa atu te tauine paerangi i nga pou.
Ellesmere He ōrite te rahi o te āhua o te motu i te raki o Kānata ki te āhua o Ahitereiria, ahakoa nuku atu i te 39 ngā wā o Ahitereiria.
E ōrite ana te wāhi kākāriki ki te Whenua Manapori o Kongo anake.
Te āhua nei he rite tonu te rahi o Hākaika ki Ahitereiria, ahakoa he wā 4½ tino nui a Ahitereiria.
Te āhua o Huitene he nui kē atu i Matakaha.
"He Mahere Ao i runga i tētahi Itōkia Auau nā Gnomonic Matapae.""
Na te hua o ēnei whakahētanga, kua kore ngā atamira o nāianei e whakamahi i te pūwhiti Pūhānui mō ngā mahere o te ao, mō ngā wāhi rānei e mamao ana i te paenga, e hiahia ana ki ētahi atu pūwhitinga porotini, ngā momo matapae rohe ōrite rānei.
I whakatupuria e Arno Peters he tautohetohe tīmata i te tau 1972 ina tono he aha te huaina ināianei ko te matapae a Gall–Peters hei rongoā i ngā raruraru o te Mercator, e kī ana ko tāna ake mahi taketake kāhore e tohutoro ana ki ngā mahi o mua pēnei i te mahi a Gall mai i te tau 1855.
Ko te awhe mō tētahi o ngā kōwhiringa ka taea, tata ki te 35 km, engari mō te tauine iti (rohe nui) ka waiho pea tēnei rerekētanga, ā, ko ngā uara tau toharite o te 6,371 km me te 40,030 km ka tangohia pea mō te pūtoro me te kumu.
Kua whakapūtātia tētahi matapae mahere porotakaroa mā te tātai e hono ana i ngā taururuku taunaha o te pae rārangitanga o te φ me te roanga atu ki te Cartesian ka tauritea i runga i te mahere me te takenga o te paewae me te tuaka x i te taiapa.
I te mea he mea pātapa te porotakaroa ki te ao i te pae, ko te āhuatanga tauine i waenganui i te ao me te porotakaroa he kotahitanga i runga i te ao engari kāore he wāhi kē atu.
Kei roto te rerekētanga (λ − λ0) i roto i te tātoro.
Kua whakamahia anō ngā whakaheke tino hōhā rawa: i popore te nuinga o te pukapuka o te kura o Tipuihi i tata ki te 76°N me te 56°S, he ōwehenga aronga o te 1.97.
He pai ake ngā tīhore whāiti ake: hekona 8° = 1.01, nā reira he tika te tīhore whānui 16° (i whakawaengatia ki te paerewa) ki roto i te wāhanga 1% 1 rānei i te 100.
Ko te uara o te e2 e 0.006 mō ngā huamanu tohutoro katoa.)
Mō te tauira o runga 1 cm e ōrite ana ki te 1,500 km i te pae matua o te 60°.
Ko tēnei tangihanga he koki i te pokapū e ōrite ana ki te 2arcsin(cos φ hara) me te tawhiti porowhita rahi i waenganui i te A me B ko te 2a arcsin(cos φ hara).)
Mō ētahi atu tinana ka tohutorotia tētahi āhuahira mata pūmau, arā mō Tūtoro te taumata e tika ana na te raka Airy-0.
Mā te whakatikatikatanga mō te Whenua, o te Marama, me te Rā e whakaaturia ana i roto i ngā waeine e tata ana mai i te −180° ki +180° Mō ētahi atu tinana ka whakamahia te awhe 0° ki te 360°.
Ko te tauine o te mahere ko te ōwehenga o tētahi tawhiti o te mahere ki te tawhiti e hangai ana i runga i te whenua.
Ko te huarahi tuatahi ko te ōwehenga o te rahi o te ao hanga ki te rahi o te Ao.
He maha ngā mahere e whakahua ana i te tauine ingoa, ā, ka whakaaturia pea tētahi tauine pae (i ētahi wā e kīia noatia ana he 'tauine') hei tohu.
Ki tēnei pū ko te 'tauine' ko te tauwehe tauine (= tauine ira = tauine tūtohu).
Ka takenui te matapae mahere ki te mōhio me pēhea te rerekē o te tauine puta noa i te mahere.
He tirohanga tēnei o ngā pūwhitinga katoa e mōhiotia tata ana mai i te tawhito ki te 1993.
Ko te tauine iti e pā ana ki ngā mahere o te ao, ki ngā mahere rānei o ngā rohe nui pēnei i ngā whenua, i ngā iwi nui rānei.
Ka whakaaturia e ngā mahere tauine-nui ngā wāhi iti ake mō ētahi atu taipitopito, pēnei i ngā mahere rohe, ngā mahere taone rānei pea.
"Heoi anō, pēnei i te whakamārama i runga, ka whakamahia e ngā kaiwhatarau te kupu ""tauine nui"" hei whakapā atu ki ngā mahere whānui rawa – te hunga e whakaatu ana i tētahi horahanga iti iho."
E whakaaturia noatia ana tēnei e te āheitanga o te whakaene i te whiu karaka ki runga i te mata papatahi me te kore roimata me te whakahāngai.
He kōrerorero te pūtau tauine huri noa i runga i te mahere e tohu ana he pūwhiti hāngai.
Ko te tikanga o te tohu 'iti' ko te tikanga o te tika o te inenga, kāore e taea te kite i te huringa tauine i runga i te huānga.
E kī ana mātou ko ēnei taururuku e tautuhi ana i te mahere matapae me mārama arorau mai i ngā mahere tā (tirohia rānei).
I te mea ka rerekē te tauine ira ki te tūnga me te ahunga i te matapae o te porowhita i runga i te matapae ka whakahaweatia.
Mā te huri i ēnei porotītaha whakarerekētanga i runga i te pūwhitinga mahere ka tukuna te huarahi e hurihia ai te tauine ira ki runga i te mahere.
Ko te ōwehenga o te tuaka matua ki te tuaka iti ko te .
He pono te tauine (k=1) i runga i te paetaha kia whakarea ai te roanga ki runga i tētahi mahere tāngia e te kōaro o te RF (tauine matua rānei) ka tuku i te wehenga tūturu o te Ao.
E whakaatu ana te tā runga i te taumahi tauine isotropic Mercator: he ōrite te tauine i runga i te whakarara ki te tauine i runga i te meridian.
Nō reira, he tino tika rawa te matapae pātapa o Te Pūwhakamutunga i roto i tētahi tīhore whānuitanga 3.24 waeine i waenganui i te paenga.
Nā ēnei kitenga i āki te whanaketanga o ngā matapae o te Pūwhakaatu Kōaro i kitea ai he meridian 'pēnei i te paenga' o te pūwhitinga kia whiwhi ai tātau i tētahi mahere tika i roto i tētahi tawhiti whāiti o taua taumata.
Ko ngā tohutohu katinara e whā, ko ngā tohutohu katinara rānei, ko ngā aronga kāpehu matua e whā: ki te raki, ki te rawhiti, ki te tonga, ki te hauauru hoki, i tuhituhia nuitia e aua tohutohu N, E, S, me W.
Ina haere ki te Rāwhiti, ki te Uru rānei, kei te Ao anake ka āhei te tangata ki te pupuri i te Rāwhiti, i te Uru rānei, kia haere tika rānei (me te kore hiahia ki te whakatere).
Ko te pou ki te raki o te ngira hautō e anga ana ki te pou ki te raki o te whenua, a, ko te tuarā atu.
I waenganui o te rā, kai te tonga mā ngā kaitirotū i te Ao ki te Raki, e noho nei ki te raki o te Kōpae Kanapu, me te raki mō te hunga o te Kōpae Ki te Tonga, e noho ana ki te tonga o te Kōpae o Capricorn.
I ēnei tauwāhi, me mātua whakatau tētahi e neke ana te rā mai i te rawhiti ki te uru ki te raki, ki te tonga rānei mā te mātakitaki i ōna nekenekehanga—ki te taha mauī ki matau ko te tikanga e haere ana ki te tonga me te taha matau ki te mauī, ko te tikanga kei te raki; ka taea rānei e tētahi te mātakitaki i nga kōruru o te rā.
Na te tītaha tongī o te Ao, ahakoa he aha te tauwāhi o te kaitirotiro, e rua rā ia tau ki te whiti pū te rā.
Kia mahi ai tēnei aratuka i te tuakorangi ki te tonga, ka anga atu te 12 ki te Rā me te wāhi haurua i waenganui i te ringa haora me te karaka 12 ka tohu ki te raki.
Ko tēnei tuaka e whakawhiti ana i te Nui Rangi ki te Raki, ki te Tonga hoki o nga pou Rangitahi, e whakaatu nei ki te kaitirotiro e takoto hāngai ana i runga ake i te Raki me te Tonga i te pae.
E whakaatu ana te whakaahua e hua ana i te maha o ngā pewa pānuinui (he wāhanga o ngā porohita tika) ka taea te mōhio mai te pū tūturu, ā, e ōrite ana ki te pou Rangitahi, e noho hāngai tonu ana ki runga ake i te tūnga o te pou pono (Raki, Ki te Tonga) i te pae.
Ko te tūnga pū o te pou e whakarerekē ana i runga i te mano tau nā te whakahautanga o nga pahī o te rā.
"Ka whakamahia pea te pūwhetūriki ""Pūatatau Nui"" ki te kimi Polaris."
I te mea e kitea ana he pono, ehara i te hautō, ki te raki, e aukati ana ki te whakararurarutanga e ngā āpure autō o te papa ā-rohe, i te papapuka kaipuke rānei.
Ko te nuinga o nga mahere o Uropi o roto tonu, hei tauira, i whakatakotoria ki te rāwhiti (E) ki runga.
Kei roto i ngā mahere tātuhi ētahi huamanu, mā ngā raina aratau.
Ko te wāhi ki te Raki ko te pūwāhi i runga i te peke e tata ana ki te pou ā-Raki.
E haere whakatata ana i te kōpae tākaraka mai i te wāhi ki te Raki, kotahi tētahi tūtakinga i te wāhi ki te Uru, te pito ki te Tonga, kātahi ko te pito ki te Rāwhiti.
I te nuinga o te wā, i te nuinga o te wā, i waenganui i te waru me te 32 ngā ira o te kāpehu – ko ngā aronga katinara me ngā kāriwai – i tapaina ki ngā ingoa.
Ko ngā pūnaha whai piro katinara e rima (e whā aronga me waenganui) ko ērā nō Haina hou, tae atu ki ngā tikanga Taketake o Tāwhiti, tīwhiti me Ainu.
"Tērā pea kei ētahi ko "runga" me te ""kei raro"" hei tohutohu, nō reira ka arotahi ki te tuhi nui o ngā tohutohu e whitu."
E pātahi ana te raki ki ngā Hāngaia me te rangi i te wā e pātahi ana te tonga ki te rarohenga, ki te whenua rānei o nga matua (Pitr loka).
Ko te raki tētahi o ngā tohu kāpehu e whā, ahunga katinara rānei.
"Ko te āhuatanga o Rōpūkākā no te iraira, "ko ngā kau parau e whitu", he ingoa o Ursa Major."
"Hei tauira, i Lezgian, ka noho kē pea te kefer ki te ""whakaponokore", me te ""raki", mai i te raki o te whenua kāinga o Mohipoani Lezgiana, ko ētahi wāhi e nohoia ana i mua e ngā Tāngata Kākāriki mohoao me Ngā Tāngata Taketake i mua."
I runga i ngā ahanoa tītaka takarangi, e whakaatu ana te raki i te taha e whakaatu ana ki te tītaka tākaraka-karaka ina tirohia mai i tawhiti i te tuaka o te takahuringa.
Engari ko nga whakaaro māmā mo te kaupapa me kore e mōhiotia, ā, ko te āhua o nga mōhiotanga e paingia ana mō te autō o te teretere.
Kua tupu tēnei hui mai i te whakamahinga o te kāpehu, e noho ana ki te raki ki runga.
E nui ana te kai me te whakaruruhau i te 95% o te Ao Whānui Ā-Raki, me te pūnaha mātauranga e mahi ana.
Tērā anō pea ko te "whakamahi i te kupu"Ki te Tonga"" tērā pea ko te whenua-tūhono, otirā i ngā take o te āhua o te ohaoha, o te wehe ahurea rānei."
Āhua kore nei e whakawhānui ana te tikanga ki Poriwia, ā, i te tikanga tino whāiti, e taupoki anake ana ki Hiri, Āhiana me Urukua.
Ko te uru te aronga tauaro o te takahuringa o te Ao i runga i tōna tuaka, nā reira koia te aronga ahuwhānui ki te āhua o te Rā ki te kaunuku auau, ā, kātahi anō ka tautuhia.
I Ihipa o Mua, i whakaarotia ko te Uru te tomokanga ki te tīpono, a, ko ia te aronga mārō e pā ana ki te mate, ahakoa kāore i te wā katoa me tētahi kohukohu kino i ngā wā katoa.
I Hura, e kitea ana te hauauru e anga ana ki te Herekina (aroaro) o te Atua, me te mea i roto i te hītori Huria, ka anga atu te Tapenakara me te Temepara o Hiruharama ki te rawhiti, me te Aroaro o te Atua i te Wahi Tapu o Uru, i runga i nga hipanga ki te hauauru.
Ko te Porowhita Ā-Moka tētahi o ngā porohita kōpaka e rua, ā, ko te raki rawa o ngā porohita nui e rima o te pae, pērā ki ngā mahere o Te Ao.
He porohita pae, raina pae rānei o te Ao he porohita iti whakarākei-ki te-hauauru e tūhono ana i ngā tauwāhi katoa huri noa i Te Ao (waiho ana i te huarahi) i tētahi raina rūrārangi pae.
Kāore ngā porowhita aho i te rite ki ngā porohita tapawhā, he porohita nunui katoa ki waenganui o Te Ao i waenganui, i te mea e iti iho ana ngā porowhita pae i te tawhititanga o te Pae.
Ko te porowhita aho e whakawātea ana ki ngā meri katoa.
Ko te Ao te porohita roa rawa o te pae, a, ko te porohita anake o te pae, he porohita nui hoki.
I runga i tētahi mahere, tērā pea, kāore pea i te whakarara ngā porohita pae, kāore rānei i te whakarara, ā, ka rerekē pea ō rātou mokowā, i runga anō i te pūwhitinga ka whakamahia hei whakamahere i te papa o Te Ao ki runga i te rererangi.
Hei tauira, i runga i tētahi matapae o te Pūwhakahaere, he nui ake te mokowā o ngā porohita paetata e tata ana ki nga pou rākau hei pupuri i ngā tauine me ngā āhua paetata, i runga i tētahi kahu-Peteru e tata ana ngā porowhita paetata ki nga pou kia tika ai ngā tauritenga o te takiwā.
He nui nga whakaritenga iti ake, e rerekē ana ngā neke ia rā o ētahi ine ki tētahi ahunga.
54°40'N Te rohe i waenganui i nga rohe o te rau tau 19 o Rūhia ki te raki, ki te whenua tūponotanga o Amerika me Peretania e papā ana i Amerika ki te uru.
43°30'N Kei Amerika, te rohe i waenganui i Rapa me Aioa.
42°N Tuatahi te tepe whaka te raki o Paniora Hou.
41°N ki Te Hononga o Amerika, he wāhi o te rohe i waenganui o Teiuru, o Orotoi, te rohe i waenganui o Teiōi me Rōtero, me tētahi wāhi o te rohe i waenganui o Nekāka, o Rōtero.
38°N Te rohenga i waenganui i ngā rohe mahi a Rōpūa me Amerikana i Kōrea, a muri ake nei i waenganui o Kōrea ki te Tonga, mai i te tau 1945 tae noa ki te Pakanga Kōria (1950–1953).
I te wā o te wāwāhi he toronga Whaka te Hauauru o te rohe i waenganui o Wārihi ki Rāwāri ki te Raki me tētahi wāhanga o te rohe i waenganui o Keina ki Te Whenua o Te Aotearoa.
Waihoki ko tētahi wāhi o te rohe i waenganui o Kararehe ki te Raki me Hōria.
32°N ki Te Hononga o Amerika, ko tētahi wāhanga o te taitapa i waenganui i New Mexico me Texas.
25°N He wāhanga o te rohe i waenganui o Mauritania me Mali.
17°N Te wehenga i waenganui i te Whenua o Whitināmu (Whitināmu ki te Tonga) me te Whenua Manapori o Vietnam (Vietnam ki te Raki) i te wā o te Pakanga o Whitināmu.
8°N Tētahi wāhanga o te rohe i waenganui i Somalia me Etiopia.
7°S He wāhanga poto o te rohe i waenganui i te Whenua Manapori o Kongo me Aora.
He tino whānui nga toi o nga mahi a te tangata o te kīanga auaha, te kōrero me te whai wāhitanga ahurea.
Ka taea e rātou te whakamahi i ngā mōhiotanga me te mātauranga ki te hanga i ngā ahanoa, ki ngā mahinga, ki te tuku kitenga me ngā wheako, me te hanga i ngā taiao me ngā mokowā hōu.
Ka taea hoki e rātou te whakawhanake, te āwhina rānei ki tētahi āhuatanga o tētahi toi matatini ake, pērā ki tōna tāwhanatanga.
Ko te tikanga tuatahi o te kupu toi ko te «tikanga o te mahi».
I roto i tōna whakamāramatanga whakarāpopoto taketake, ko te toi he whakaaturanga kua oti te tuhinga o tētahi mea tuku mā roto, i runga rānei i tētahi mea āhei kia taea ai e te tangata te tiro, te rongo, te wheako rānei.
E whakamātau ana tēnei whakatauranga tūmatanui ki nga āhuatanga kaupapa maha.
I Kariki o Neherā, ko ngā toi me te mahi katoa i kōrerotia e te kupu kotahi, he hangarau.
Na te toi rā o Roma i whakaahua ngā atua hei tangata tino pai, e whakaaturia ana ki ngā āhuahira ariki āhuahira (hei tauira, he papatitiri a Teus).
Ko tētahi āhuatanga o tēnei kāhua, ko te tae paetata e tautuhia nuitia ana e te whakahuahua (he ōrite o nāianei ko te atahanga).
I roto i te akoranga o nāianei, ko te tikanga kia whakarōpūtia nga toi ki te rōpū ā roto rānei o nga tikanga tangata.
"Ko te kupu hoahoa e ahu mai ana i te arai kariki, ""kaihanga matua, kaiwhakahaere matua,"" mai i αρχι- (aaka) "upoko"" + τεκτων (tekton) "kaihanga, kamura"."
I roto i te whakamahinga o tēnei wā, ko te hoahoa ko te toi me te hāngaitanga o te waihanga, e whānui ana rānei i tētahi mahere whāiti, kitea rānei o, tētahi ahanoa matatini, pūnaha rānei.
Mā te hoahoa i whakaritea e whānako ana i te mokowā, i te rōrahi, i te kanokano, i te mārama, i te kōruru, i ngā huānga whakairoiro rānei kia taea ai ngā āhuatanga ātaahua.
Ahakoa he toi pai ētahi hua kōmāriki, e whakaarotia ana ētahi he mea whakapaipai, he mahi, he ahanoa toi rānei.
I roto i tētahi wheketere tārai, kōmārō rānei, he rōpū tāngata e hanga ana, he waihanga, he whakarākai, he rākai i te tārai uku.
Ko te nuinga o te wā, ko te mahi tohu i runga i te mata mā te hoatu pēhi mai i tētahi utauta, te neke rānei i tētahi utauta puta noa i te mata.
Ko ngā pūkenga matua e whakamahia ana i te tātuhi ko te tātuhi raina, te paopao, te pūkākā matapōkere, te whakahuatuhi, te tuhituhi, me te whakaranu.
Ko ngā whakaahua he āhuatanga, he pūhotanga rānei (pēnei i roto i tētahi ao tūtata, peita horanuku rānei), he whakaahua, he whakaahua, he kōrero, he tohu tūturu (pēnei i roto i te Kīanga), tōrangapū rānei (pēnei i roto i Artivism).
Ko "te kuputuhi"" i takea mai i te kupu Rātini littera ko te tikanga "tētahi tangata tuhituhi pūāhua"".
He mea noa iho te āhua o ia whakatakotoranga mahi toi, ko te tikanga ka mahia te hua i roto i tētahi wā.
Ka whakamahia hoki te kanikani hei whakaahua i ngā tikanga o te whakawhiti kōrero ā-waha (tirohia te reo tinana) i waenganui i te tangata, i te kararehe rānei (hei tauira, he kanikani whāngai, he kanikani tātai), te nekeneke i ngā rau e kanikani ana i te hau), me ētahi momo pūoro, tūmomo rānei.
Ka rerekē te hanganga, te mahinga, te tikanga, me te whakamāramatanga o te pūoro, e ai ki te ahurea me te horopaki pāpori.
"I mōhiotia e te kaitito Richard Wagner te hononga o ngā whakatinana maha ki roto i tētahi mahi opera kotahi, i whakaaturia e tana hurihanga o Der Ring des Nibelungen ("The Ring of the Nibelung")."
Ko ētahi atu mahi i te tōmuri o te 19, i te 20 me te rauneti 21 kua whakaritea ētahi atu tikanga ahurei, auaha hoki, pēnei i te toi mahinga.
E whakaarotia ana a Hoani Cage e te tokomaha he kaiwaiata mahinga, ehara i te kaitito, ahakoa i manakohia e ia te wā whakamutunga.
Kei roto i te toi kua hoatu ko ngā āpure pēnei i te hoahoa taimahi, te whakaahua me te toi arumoni.
I roto i ngā pūtaiao pāpori, ka whakaatu ngā kaitohutohu ahurea i te āhuatanga o te purei kēmu ataata ki te whakauru atu ki ngā puka toi me ngā mahi ahurea tūturu, e tohu ana i te whakahirahira i waenga i ngā kēmu ataata me ngā toi.
Ko te "hoahoa rātini(kaihoahoa Rātini, nō te aakaaka ἀρχιτέκτων Kariki"", mai i ἀρχι- ""rangatira"" me τέκτων "kaihanga") ko te tukanga me te hua o te whakaritenga, te hoahoa, me te hanga whare, ētahi atu hanganga rānei."
Ko te mahi, i tīmata i te wā o mua, kua whakamahia hei tikanga whakaatu i te ahurea mō ngā whenua e whitu i nga whenua e whitu.
"No te rau tau e 19, ka kōrero a Louis Oerikona e whai ana te "puka" i te taumahi". """
I tīmata te hoahoa hei hoahoa māra, hei hoahoa reo reoroa i tupu mai i te whakamātautau me te hapa ki te tukuruatanga angitu.
I te wā o ngā Wā o Ūropi Waenganui, ka puta ake ngā kāhua pane-Ūropi o ngā whare kaitiaki Roma me ngā wharetū Kotahi i te wā e manakohia ana e te Hānaoha ngā puka Koirangi i whakatinanatia e nga kaihoahoa i whakaingoatia e te ingoa.
I whakaurua te whakawhākaha ki ngā tikanga hou, ngā rawa me ngā puka whakarea ngāwari, e hāngai ana i te ara mo ngā ahunga nui.
He hanga whakakotahi, he āhua hōhā rānei.
Ko te āhuatanga tino nui o te ātaahua koia tētahi wāhi tūturu o te ahanoa, ehara i te mea pōauau te hoatu i tētahi mea, i runga anō i ngā pono ahuwhānui, e mōhiotia ana.
I te rau tau e 16, ka tuhituhi te kaituhi peita, me te kaitatauā ā-Rōpū ā-Itari i a Rōpū Serlio, i a Tutte L'Opere D'Architettura et Prospetiva (Ngā Mahi Oti i runga i te Hoahoa me te Tirohanga).
"Ko ngā hoahoa kotahi, i whakapono Pugin, anake te ""karaitiana pono o te hoahoa.""
I waenganui i nga hinengaro kua whakaawe i ngā kaihoahoa o nāianei me to rātau whakataunga ki te hanga i te hanganga, ko te Whakahauhautanga, te Hanganga, te Āhukahuka, te Arotahi me te Tohuāpiture.
Ko te hanga whare me te tāonetanga o ngā iwi O Kāwanatanga pērā ki te kariki me te Rōmana i āhuatanga tūturu, neke atu i ngā mea hāhi, ngā mārire rānei, me ngā momo whare hou.
Mai i tērā wā, kua tuhia nga kuputuhi o te hoahoa.
Ko te tino putanga o te hanganga Puta, i whakaaturia ai te rerenga ā-rohe tino nui.
Ko te tikanga ko te mahi o te kaihoahoa ko tētahi o nga kaituhituhi matua, ki a Magister rānei, i ētahi wā e whakaahuatia ana i roto i ngā tuhinga o nāianei.
I whakaritea nga whare ki nga kaihoahoa tauwhāiti - kua tīmata te whirinaki o te tangata, a Pārihī, a Pārio, a, te whirinaki o te tangata.
Ko te whakaakoranga hanganga tōtika i te rau tau 19, hei tauira i École des Beaux-Arts i Wīwī, i tino āta whakamātau ki te whakaputa i ngā pikitia ātaahua me te iti ki te horopaki me te whainga.
Ko te mea e mōhiotia ana i waenganui i ēnei ko te Whakatauanga Werkbund, i hangaia i te tau1907 hei whakaputa i ngā ahanoa pai ake i hangaia e te mīhini.
I te tuatahi o te whakatakotoranga o ngā hoahoa o nāianei, he nekehanga kiriata tērā, he tōpū tōtika, he whakakaha rerehua.
Ko te huarahi a ngā Kaihanga Kaihanga Modernist ko te whakaiti i ngā whare ki ngā āhua parakore, te tango i ngā tohutoro o mua me ngā whakapaipai mo ngā kо̄rero mahi.
I mahi ngā kaihoahoa pēnei i a Mies van der Rohe, i mahi a Pirihi Hōne me Tāwai Breuer ki te hanga i te ataahua i runga anō i ngā painga tūturu o te hanga rawa hanga me ngā pūkenga hanganga o nāianei, e whakawhiti ana i ngā puka hākinakina māmā mō ngā āhuatanga whakarea.
Kua nui haere te uaua o ngā tukanga whakarite mo te hoahoa o tētahi whare nui, ā, ka hiahiatia he akoranga tōmua mo ēnei mea pēnei i te kaha, te mau tonu, te kounga, te moni, me te āta whakahaere i ngā ture paetata.
Kua noho te whakapūmau taiao hei take matua, he tino pānga ki te mahi hangarau.
Kua hurihia hoki e tēnei neke matua o te hoahoa nga kura hoahoa kia nui ake ai te arotahi ki te taiao.
Kua whakatangihia te pūnaha whakatauranga o te Rūnanga Hanga Whare Kākāriki o U.S. LEED(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) ki tēnei.
Ka taea hoki te hoahoa tuatahi me te mahere mō te whakamahi, kātahi anō ka hoahoa anō hei pupuri i tētahi whāinga hurihia, he hoahoa tino whakahōu rānei mō te whakamahinga urutau o te anga whare.
Ko te hoahoa tuatahi o te ipu, tana hoahoa taipitopito, te hanganga, ngā whakamātautau, te mahi me te tautiakitanga, te whakarewa me te tāmautanga maroke ko ngā ngohe matua.
Ko te kōrero, ko ngā hoahoa tapu hei rohe mō ngā wheakoro meta, he mea iti noa iho pea, he pūtahi, he tino tūmataiti, whaiaro, ā-tūmatanui hoki.
Na te aranga ake o te Karaitiana me te Karaitiana, ka nui haere nga whare karakia, ka inoi me te whakaaro nui.
I whakawhitiwhitia Īnia e ngā ara tauhokohoko o nga kaihokohoko i tawhiti rawa atu ki a Siraf me Haina, ki ngā whakaekenga huarere mai i ngā manene, i hua ai ētahi āhuatanga maha o nga huānga whenua i runga i ngā kāhua māori.
Kei Nalanda (Bihar) tētahi tauira tīariari.
E ai ki ngā huringa o te mahi whakapono, i āta whakaurua te pāpaka ki roto i ngā hōro pōturi (hōro karaka).
Ko nga temepara Puta i hangaia ā taihoa ake, i waho rānei o Āhia ki te Tonga, i te wā i whakapeka ā-nuitia ai te Pāhāmu mai i ngā keneturio o mua o te CE, ahakoa he tauira tērā o te Temepara Mahabodhi i Bodh Kāri i Bihar.
I roto i te whakaponotanga hā hindu, ko te temepara e tohu ana i te tonotono o te ao nui, me te meroiti o te mokowā roto.
Neke atu i te 2000 tau i huri ai tēnei wā.
I tua atu i tērā, i whakahōutia te pōhatu pereki, kāore i tino mātakina te ōta puihi, i whakahōutia e nga mohi te whakapaipai whakairo, ā, i hangaia he kopa matatini.
Ko ngā kāhua tuatahi i roto i ngā hoahoa Ingarihi i hangaia 'mahere-Arapia', kāhuahua rānei i roto i te Whare Hauora Umayyad.
I roto i ngā whare karakia iwan, ka anga atu tētahi, neke atu rānei iwan ki tētahi marae matua e noho ana hei hōro inoi.
Ko te tihi o te pāreta te wāhi teitei rawa o nga wharenui e whai ana kotahi, a, ko te nuinga o te wā ko te wāhi tiketike i te wāhi tata.
Na reira i inoia ai e nga kaihoahoa o te whare tapu te hanga o te pourewa pere mo a rātau pākoro, i whakamahia i runga i taua take kotahi tonu – me te karanga i te hunga pono ki te inoi.
Ahakoa i te nuinga o te hanga o te kopae, ko ngā Ipu i Īnia i pānuitia te kupenga ā-riki i Āhia ki te Tonga me Pahia.
I te nuinga o te wā e anga ana ki te tomokanga ki te hōro inoi ko te pātū tūruhi, ko te wāhi āta whakawhāiti i roto i te hōro inoi.
Kai roto i te pātū tūruhi, ko te waenganui, ko te pūrere, he tūāwhara, he kuititanga rānei e whakaatu ana i te pātū'i'wāhi.
Ko te pūhrab hai tauwāhi e ārahi ana te pirihi i nga inoi e rima o ia rā i runga i te ritenga.
He moepuku, he huri, me te ata e tu ana i te pito ki te rawhiti (tirohia te hoahoa o te whare karaka).
E whakaaro ana te nuinga o nga kaipūkōrero hangahanga ki te hoahoa o Pīkarī o Hato Pita i Rōpū hei kaiwhakahaere mo te kāhua o Tōkora; ka taea te mōhiotia tēnei e ngā mokowā ā roto whānui ake (ki te whakakapi i ngā moka whāiti roa), te aro atu ki te mārama me te kōruru, te whakapaipai whānui, ngā ira nui, te arotahi ki ngā toi roto, me te auau, he pūwhitinga tauwaenga pū nui.
Ahakoa i mārama tonu te āhua o nga hanganga o te ao i runga i te whanaketanga o ngā hoahoa hou, ka kitea ētahi tauira tino pai rawa o ngā hoahoa hou i roto i nga whare whakapono o te rau tau 20.
"Kua whakaahuatia he ""phalanx o nga kairiri"" i whakakā i o rātau waero, a, ka tohu whaka te rangi."
I whakahaeretia te Temepara i Independence, e te kaihoahoa Hapanihi, o Gyo Taumaa, i muri i te ariā o te whare ruma.
I tērā taha, he nui kē atu te hanganga o te Pākākā o to tātau Wahine o Licheī.
Ko te kāhua hoahoa he huinga o ngā āhuatanga me ngā āhuatanga e mārama ana ki tētahi whare, tētahi atu hanganga rānei e mōhiotia ana, e kitea ana rānei i te hītori.
Ko te nuinga o ngā hoahoa ka taea te whakawātea i roto i te wā o ngā kāhua e huri ana i ngā hua, ngā whakapono me ngā hāhi hou, te putanga mai rānei o ngā whakaaro hou, te hangarau, ngā rawa rānei e taea ai ngā kāhua hōu.
Ahakoa te wā ka ahuahuatia ētahi kāhua, ā, ina huri tētahi kāhua i te nuinga o te wā, e ako ana ngā kaihoahoa me te whakaurutau ki ngā whakaaro hōu.
Hei tauira, i puta ngā ariā Ānareka i Itari huri noa i te 1425, ā, kua horahia ki Uropi katoa i ngā tau e 200 e whai ake nei, me ngā Rerekētanga Wīwī, Tiamana, Ingarihi, me Paniora e whakaatu ana i te kāhua ōrite, engari me ngā āhuatanga ahurei.
I muri i te rewa o tētahi kāhua hangahanga, ka puta mai pea ngā whakaoranga me ngā whakamāoritanga anō.
I whakaorangia te kāhua o te mātauranga Paniora, e 100 tau i muri ake nei, he āhua Anō o te Hīnītori, ā, kātahi anō ka huri ki te Ararahi anō o te Kawanatanga o Paniora.
Ko tētahi tauira o te hoahoa Hanga ko te Villa Farnese i Caprarola i te taha whenua torehape i waho o Roma.
Mā ngā kāhua o Antwerp, ko ngā kāhua Whakanao me ngā āhua āhuatanga i whakamōhiotia i Ingarangi, i Tiamana, i Ūropi ki te raki, ki te rāwhiti rānei.
Na te āhua pai o te Whakahāngai anō o te āhua o te hāngai, i whakawātea ai i nga rangi whakaharahara, kia nui ake hoki nga rangi whakaaro.
Ko te ariā hoahoa he mahi whakaaro, kōrerorero, me te tuhituhi mo nga hoahoa.
I ētahi wā he āta whakaaro te ariā hangahanga, a, ka noho tata, kia mahi rānei nga kaiāirau i roto i nga kura.
Heoi anō, ehara tēnei i te mea kāore aua mahi i te tīari, i tukuna he maha nga mahi kāore anō kia ora i te tawhito.
Tērā pea i tuhia i waenganui i te 27 me te 23 KORE, koia anake te pūtake o te wā o nāianei anake i runga i ngā hoahoa puihi kua ora.
E whakatūtohu ana hoki i ngā ture taketake e toru me whakarongo ki ngā hoahoa, kia taea ai te whakaaro: te taimautanga, te utilitas, ngā kōpāpā, i whakamāoritia i te rau tau 17 a Tā Henry Wotton ki roto i te kaha o te taitamariki Ingarihi, te taonga me te ahuareka (ko te tikanga o te āhua o te āhua hanga, me te ataahua).
No te mea i runga i nga hanganga nga kaupapa hanganga, he torutoru noa iho o rātau i whakaahuatia.
I tūmanako ēnei ariā ki te whakawhanaketanga o te Taumahinga i roto i te hoahoa hou.
Nā tēnei i hanga te kaupapa mo Art Nouveau i UK, i whakaaturia e te mahi a Charles Rennie Mackintosh, a, i whakaawetia te Hirētanga o Whiena.
Ko te whakatupuranga i whānau i te wā o waenganui o te rau tau 19, i whakararurarutia te nuinga o nga wā i whakaratohia e te pahekotanga a Semper o tētahi hōkaitanga hītori e whakamīharo ana me te whāriki tikanga.
I whakakāhore te Nekehanga Hōu i ēnei whakaaro, ā, ka ākiritia ngākau o Le Corbusier i te mahi.
Ko tētahi atu kaupapa ā-ariā o tēnei wā ko Ebenezer Hauati, nāna i whakatū te nekeneke o te taone kāri.
Ko te whakamahinga wawe o te kupu hoahoa hou i tā, i puta mai i te taitara o tētahi pukapuka nā Otto Wagner, nāna tonu i hoatu he tauira mō tōna ake māngai mahi o te Hinga Whiena me ngā whakaahuatanga toi nouveau, me ngā akoranga āta whakaaro ki ana ākonga.
Frank Lloyd Wright, i a ia e whakahē ana i te whakakorea o te whakahauoratanga hou, i āta whakaarotia tana ariā, nāna i whakarato i runga i te tuhituhi tinihanga.
Wright he tohunga puku ake, i mau tonu ki te tirohanga o te rau tau 19 o te rehetoi auaha hei tipua ahurei.
Koia anō tēnei ki ngā kaiwhakaako i roto i te akoranga pēnei i te Dalibor Vesely, i te Alberto-Perez Gomez, ā, i ngā tau tata nei kua whakapakaritia tēnei takotoranga hinengaro mā te rangahau o tētahi whakatupuranga tauwhiro hou (E.G. Jeffrey Kipnis, Sanford Kwinter).
Ko ētahi atu, pēnei i Beatriz Colomina me Mary McLeod, ka whakaroha i ngā mōhiotanga hītori o ngā hoahoa kia whakauru atu ai i ngā tohutohu iti iho, iti rānei, nāna i whakaawe te whakawhanaketanga o ngā whakaaro hangahanga i roto i te roanga o te wā.
I roto i a rātou kaupapa, ka whakatauritea te hoahoa ki tētahi reo e taea te waihanga, te waihanga anō hoki i ia wā ka whakamahia.
Mai i te tau o te 2000, ko te ariā hangahanga me anga atu ki te tere o te pikinga o te tāone me te whakawhanaketanga.
"I ngā tekau tau kua taha, kua puta mai te putanga o te hoahoa ""Mamati"."
I te ngana ki te hanga i tētahi reo hōu hou, e hoahoatia ana hoki e nga kaihoahoa nga whare momo-waro i te ngana ki te hanga i tētahi reo hōu.
Mai i te putanga mai o ēnei āhuatanga hanganga hou, he nui nga taurangi me ngā kaihoahoa kai te mahi i ēnei take, i te whakawhanake i ngā kaupapa akoranga me ngā whakaaro pēnei i te Hangarite a Patrick Paraihe.
Ko te waihanga hoahoa o Pāntine te hoahoa o te Emepaea o Paanatini, o te Emepa rānei o Roma ki te Rāwhiti.
Na nga whakapeheko koura tino nui i mau mai ai te marama me te mahana ki roto ki te ngākau o nga whare karakia.
He māpere anō ētahi o nga tīwae.
Ko nga taonga rākau utu nui, pēnei i ngā moenga, i nga tūru, i ngā tēpu, i ngā pae pukapuka, i nga kapu hiriwa, i ngā kapu koura rānei, he ātaahua ngā whakamāmātanga, he mea rākai ki roto o Tānina.
Mo ngā kāinga o te Pākākā anake, he mea hira noa iho te waho, nā te mea ko nga tohunga anake i tomo ki roto, i reira i whakatauria ai te whakapakoko o te Atua i whakatapua ai te temepara.
Ko ērā i roto i te Kaitiaki o Saint Mark,, Aria (1071) i tino ātaahuatia John Ruskin's.
I nga tīwae ki te rāwhiti, ka whakairotia te raiona me te reme i ētahi wā, engari he mahi noa iho.
Ko ngā tīwae hiato e raina ana i te mokowā matua o te nave.
Kī ana ngā tīwae i te wairangi i roto i ngā momo rerekētanga katoa.
Ko ētahi atu hanganga ko nga toenga o te Whare Nui o Constantinople, ko nga pakitara wairua o Constantinople (me ngā pourewa kotahi rau e 192) me Pānaika Cistern (me ngā rau o ngā tīwae o te ao māori).
E tino whakaaturia ana te wā Paleologan i roto i nga hāhi o mua kotahi tekau i Mohūru, ko te Kaiwhakaora i Chora rāua ko Hato Maria Pouwhenua.
E kīia ana te Hāhi o nga Apotoro Tapu (Tessaloniki) he hanganga pūrangaranga o te wā tōmuri me ōna pakitara o waho i rākaitia rawatia ki ngā tauira pereki matatini, ki te kakau rānei.
I Hato Hergiusi, i Ko constantinople, i a Hana Vitala, i a Raweni, i nga hahi o te momo pū, i whakanuia te mokowā i raro i te kuha ma te āpitihanga whakaaro ki te tapawhā.
Ko tēnei wāhi motuhake, tata ki te 260 ft (80 m) te roa, ko te wāhanga nui ake i te 100 ft (30 m) te whānui, kua hipa katoatia e tētahi pūnaha mata torokī.
I hoatu ngā kuata i ngā Apotoro Tapu (rau tau 6) ki tētahi mahere hīpoki; Ko te tino taumata te kopa matua.
I ētahi wā he tapawhā te mokowā pū, i ētahi wā, i te nuinga rānei e waru nga māti e tautoko ana i te kupa, kaua ko te whā, ā, he whā te whā o ngā moka me ngā hurihanga.
I mua tonu, whakatakotoria he kōti tapawhā.
I raro hāngai tonu i te waenganui o te kuhanga ko te ambo, nā reira i karangatia ai ngā Karaipiture, i raro hoki i te ambo i te papa, ko te wāhi mo te koaea o nga kaiwaiata.
Ko ngā rārangi o ngā tūru e piki ana i te ānau o te apū me te torona o te tupuna i waenganui o te torona o waenganui, i hangaia ai te kupu whakarite.
I taupokina nga kopa me nga taupuni ki waho i te matā, i te hāpa rānei o nga momo Roma.
Tērā ētahi āhuatanga nui o te Tāhaina e kitea ana i roto i nga whakamaharatanga o mua o te Rangi i Hiria (709–715).
He pereki 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm i whakamahia, ā, ko ēnei pereki i whakapiria ki te moata kia āhua 5 cm te mātotoru.
Tērā pea ko te āhuahira tino tūmataiti o Hagia Aiku te pūrata pākaha i waenganui i te tauira o roto me te hoahoa o waho.
Na tēnei kāhua i whakaawe te hanganga o ētahi atu whare, pērā i te Pānaika o Pita.
Ko te hanganga o te putanga whakamutunga o te Hagia Sophia, e tū tonu ana i tēnei rā, i whakahaeretia e Emepara Āriana.
Ko ngā hoahoa Gothic (he hoahoa tohu rānei) he kāhua hoahoa i tino pai ki Uropi mai i te tōmuritanga o te rau tau-12 ki te rau tau 16, i ngā Tau Tiketike me te Tōmuri o Waenganui, e mau tonu ana ki te 17 me te 18 o nga rau tau i ētahi wāhi.
I ētahi wā i mōhiotia te kāhua i taua wā ko opus Francigenum (kākano.
Ko te hangarau pūkaha matua me tētahi o ētahi atu mōtete hoahoa āhua ko te rererangi.
Heoi anō, kāore he tohu hei tohu i tētahi hononga i waenganui i te hoahoa a Arereniana me te whanaketanga o te kāhua Gothic i Ūropi ki te Uru.
Na reira i pāhonotia ai te kāhua Gothic, e taute ana ki te hoahoa puihi, mai i tērā tirohanga ki te whakangaromanga o te whakaneketanga me te hākinakina.
Kei te whakamahia tonutia te kupu 'Timera' i te rau tau 18, ā, e kīia ana ki ngā kairaupatu a te Mohimana katoa, tae noa ki ngā Ārepa me ngā Ārepa.
Na te kaha o tana whakaaro o te kāhua, kaore a ia i whakaae ki te puru i tētahi tuanui Koki ki runga i te taha hou o Hato Paora, ahakoa i whakahaua ia ki te mahi pēnei.
He tokomaha nga kaituhi i whakaae ki tēnei whakapae, e kī ana i tino tātaritia te kāhua Gothic ki Uropi mā ētahi atu huarahi, hei tauira mā Paniora, a Ratai rānei.
I whakaawetia hoki e ngā akoranga arawhitiwhiti e kōrero ana kia nui ake te mārama, na ngā whakapainga hangarau i roto i ngā taupuni me ngā pūrere i whakaae kia nui ake te teitei me ngā matapihi nui ake.
I whakamahia te rib-vaults i ētahi wāhanga o te karaka i Rākano i Te Rākano (1093–) i Lessay Abbey i Nohoro (1098).
I hangaia e te Takitini o Hāmoa, tētahi wāhanga o te Emepara o Herivin, tae noa ki te rau tau 13, tōna ake putanga o Ngāki.
Ko tētahi tauira o te wā tuatahi o Nohoro Gothic ko Bayeux Cathedral (1060–70) i reira i hangaia anō ai te whare karu o Romana me te pūrākau ki roto i te kāhua o Ngāki.
I hangaia anōtia te Whare Karaka Kūrae ki NgāRara tīmatanga tata ki te 1220.
I hangaia anō e te huka ētahi wāhanga o te whare karakia Rōmana tahito me te taupuni koura kia tangohia ai ngā pakitara me te whakawātea mokowā anō mō ngā matapihi.
Anō, i tāutatia e ia tētahi matapihi rōpū ki runga i te tomokanga i runga i te matapihi.
Ko te Whare Kaitiaki o Ātaahua te whare kaitiaki tuatahi hai waihanga i tētahi taupuni kora, i hangaia i waenganui i te 1093 me te 1104.
Ko tētahi o nga kaihanga e whakapono ana kua mahi i runga i te Kahi o Heneta, i haere a William o Hani ki Ingarangi, a, ka noho ko ia te kaihoahoa, i waenganui i te 1175 me te 1180, i waihanga anō te pūrākau o Canterbury Cathedral i te kāhua hou o Ngāki.
I tino ātaahuatia nga hāhi o Ngā Kōkiko Wīwī e nga whare karakia ā-taha, i te taha o te pūoro i te Hato-Pono, i nga pourewa takirua, i nga tatau takitoru i te awa o te uru.
Ka haere kē atu nga kaihanga o Ākana Kahurangi ki te whakamōhio atu ki nga rererangi, he taumaha nga tīwae tautoko i waho o nga pakitara e honoa ana e nga rama ki nga pakitara o runga.
I haere tonu tana mahi e William te Ingarihi nāna i whakahōu tana ingoa Wīwī i roto i te 1178.
Tiercerons – ngā raraukī whakapaipai - te āhua nei kua whakamahia tuatahitia ki te taupuni i Te Karaka o Tūkoni, kua tāutatia c.1200.
Ko te whare tuatahi o te Runga Kotahi he Karakia Whakataetae, he hāhi noho manene nui ki te tonga o Pari.
Kī tonu nga pakitara i te karaehe poapoa, ko te tino whakaaturanga o te pūrākau o Te Puhi, engari i roto hoki i tētahi kokonga iti o ia matapihi, e whakaatu ana i nga mahi a nga whare o nga whare i homai i aua matapihi.
I Ūropi ki waenga, i puta mai te kāhua Ngāki Tiketike ki te Emepara o Roma Tapu, i te tuatahi i Toul (1220–), i hangaia anō tona whare karaka o Romara ki te āhua o te Whare Karaka o Reims; na, ko te hahi o Tetere o Liebfrauenkirche, ko te hahi o te parenganui o Pāhaeha (1228–), a puta noa i Ārihi, i te timatanga o Erihapetike i Marburg (1235–) me te whare karakia i Metz (c.1235–).
I whakatūria nga matapihi o Lancet e ngā rama maha i whakawehea e te whakatakina pae āhuahanga.
Ko ētahi atu āhuatanga o te Tino Gothic ko te whanaketanga o ngā matapihi rōhi e nui ake ana te rahi, mā te whakamahi i te aroturuki-pae, ngā pūrere tere ake, e taea ana te toro atu ki ngā matapihi tiketike rawa, me ngā pakitara o te tuhituhi e whakaahua ana i ngā pūrākau tūturu e whakakī ana i te mata, i te aronga o te weherua.
Nā ngā pātū teitei, pīrahirahi hoki o ngā Kāwai Rayonnant Wīwī i whakaaetia e te rere ahuwhenua ka nui ake te āhua o te karaehe me te whakarākai i te whakataki, i whakakahatia ki te mahi rino.
I whakamāramatia e ngā kaiponu he rangatū o ngā tauira whakataki mō ngā matapihi - mai i ngā āhuahanga taketake ki te whakarārangitia me te mātaki – nāna i whakawhiti te matapihi lancet.
Ko ngā hāhi me ngā āhuahira o tēnei kāhua ko te Whare Moana o Hōkai (1245–), ko ngā whare karakia i Lichfield (i muri i te 1257–) me Exeter (1275–), Bath Abbey (1298–), me te pūrākau retro i te Whare Karakia Poka (c.1320–).
He tino pūnoa te whakamahi i nga tākai.
Ko ngā tauira o te whare tahora o Wīwī ko te mata o te uru o Rouen Cathedral, ahakoa ko ngā whāriki o Sainte-Chapelle deNnes (1370s) me te whare karakia o Mont-Saint-Miharo (1448).
I te tuatahi ka puta mai i roto i nga pātūkākā me te whare ūpoko (c. 1332) o te Kahipurangi o Paora o Tawhito, i Rānaira i Rōtana, na William deHitai.
I ētahi wā e kiia ana te Nekeneke ko te Toru o nga Keneturio, a e toru nga keneturio i whakamahia ai; te pikinga kōpikopiko ki te Hāhi o te Karaiti, i Oxford, i hanga haere huri noa 1640.
Ko nga Kīngi o Wīwī te mōhio tuatahi ki te kāhua Itari hou, nā te whakahau whawhai a Charles VIII ki Naples ko Milan (1494), ā, ko ngā whakahau a Louis XII me Francis I (1500–1505) hei whakaora i te mana Wīwī ki a Milan rāua ko Genoa.
Na te Château de Blois (1515–24) i whakamōhio te Rānaotanga loggia me te huaki i te arapae.
I raro i a Hēnī x me Irihāpeti I, i taratahi te nuinga o Ingarihi i nga hanganga hanga i runga i te whenua.
I whakaputaina e Kati te pukapuka tuatahi o te reo Ingarihi i runga i te hoahoa puawai i te 1570.
Kāore te pūranga tohu i takea mai i te hoahoa Kotahi; He rau nga wā i whakamahia ai rātau i te Rāwhiti Tata i roto i te hanganga Kāwanatanga o mua, i te hanganga ā-Āmā, i nga rama, i ngā pāoho, i nga taupuni pahū.
I ētahi wā, i whakamahia ētahi wā mō ngā take māmā ake, pēnei i te mau mai i ngā taupuni kōaro ki te teitei ōrite ki ngā taupuni hauroki, pērā ki ngā ararua o te Kaitiaki o Mikaia, i hangaia i te tau kotahi mano, i te tau 1093.
Kāore i rite ki te taupuni pūkoro porohita o nga whare o Rōmana me ngā ā-Roma, i te wāhi i pēhia hāngai whakararo ai te taumahatanga, ā, ko ngā pātū matotoru me ngā matapihi iti, i hangaia te pūrara ki ngā raraukī whakawhitinga tuarongo.
Na te taumaha o nga pakitara i taupatupatu te wero whakawaho ki nga pakitara, a, muri ake ka rere.
He tino uaua ki te hanga, a, ka taea anake te whakawhiti i te mokowā whāiti.
I whakahōutia e ngā pou ngāwari o ngā tīwae whakarerekē me ngā mīti e whiwhi ana i te taumaha o ngā kuhunga, he pou ngāwari, kotahi tonu te taumahatanga o ia whiwhinga.
He raparapa tāpiri te tuatahi o ēnei taupua hou, e huaina ana he paenga, e rere ana i te tau waenganui o te taupuni.
I ētahi wā ka tāruatia e ēnei taupunihi ngā puka o te whakatakitaki āhua o ngā kāhua Gothic Tōmuri.
Ko te momo tuarua i huaina ko te taupuni whakahiato, he whatunga rarawe whakapaipai tāpiri, i ngā tapatoru me ētahi atu āhua whakarea, i purua ki waenganui, i runga rānei i nga rara whakawhiti.
Ko te tauira te kaiwhainga o Te Karaka Kareapeta (c. 1370).
I whakamahia rātau ā kō ake nei i Ngā Hekena, i Tiriti Kahurangi, i Waitaha i Ingarangi.
I te wā Kotahi Tiketike, i whakakōrerotia he puka hōu, he uho pūtahi e karapoti ana i ngā tīwae pūhihi, ngā rārangi pūhihi rānei, te haere ki runga ki nga kuhunga.
I Ingarangi, he rite tonu te whakapaipai i nga tīwae kāhui ki te mowhiti pōhatu, tae atu ki ngā tīwae whai rau whakairo.
I te wāhi o te pū matua o Koriniti, i whakamahia e ētahi tīwae te hoahoa rau pakeke.
I roto i ngā hanganga o muri ake, he maha tonu ngā haurangi o ngā rangi, ia e tae ana ki tētahi taumata kē o te hanganga.
He āhuatanga anō o nga haurangi; he takiwā ārahi i mau i te ua i runga i te tuanui; i peia atu i nga mangai kohatu i whakatakotoria he rarangi i runga i nga aroaro.
He āhuatanga whaitake hoki ta rātau; he pourewa pere e tautoko ana i nga manga pere, i korerotia e o ratou pere i te wā mā te pānui i nga ratonga whakapono, i whakatupuria ki te ahi, ki te hoariri rānei, me te whakanui i nga wā motuhake pēnei i nga toa whawhaitanga hoia, i nga whakawhanaungatanga.
I te nuinga o ngā tau o te hanganga o te whare kaupapa, he tino nui te utu, i te wā e hangaia ai te pourewa i te wā e ngaro ana te ngākau tumatanui, a ka rerekē te ngahau.
Tērā anō te ngangahau o te Tūtohi mehemea i whāia te mahere tuarua; e whitu nga pourewa e karanga ana i te wāhi whakawhitiwhiti me te wahi tapu.
He pourewa tarawhā i runga i te whakawhitinga o te huinga, o te pourewa o Ngārara, o Ngārara, o Runga Rawa; e rua nga pourewa i mua ki te uru; me nga pourewa e rua i nga pito o nga huri.
I no Nohoroi, he maha nga pourewa o nga whare karakia me nga hahi nunui, he maha nga pourewa i hanga i nga keneturio; te Abbaye aux Hommes (tīmata ki te tau 1066), e iwa nga pourewa me ngā taumata o Caen, i whakatakotoria ki te mata, ki nga hurihanga, me te puku.
He rerekētanga o te tira te pakitara, he pūhihi, he pūtara tao, i whakatakotoria i te wāhi i whakawhitiwhiti ai ki te moe.
He ātaahua to Te Karu o flèche..
I tangohia i te tau kotahi mano 1786 i te wā o tētahi papatono hei whakahou i te whare karakia, engari i whakahokia ki tētahi hanga hou i hangaia e Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.
I Ngā Gothic Ingarihi, he rite tonu te whakatakoto o te pourewa matua i te whakawhitinga o te waewae me te moe, a, he nui atu i tērā.
I hangaia he pourewa whakawhiti ki Canterbury Cathedral i te tau kotahi mano e 1493–1501 e Hoani Wastell, nāna i mahi kē i Kāreti o Kīngi i Kemitopī.
Me hanga tētahi pūranga tuarua rerekē i waenganui i te pūtahi o te whakawhitinga kia hoatu ai ki te pourewa te tautoko tāpiri e hiahiatia ana e ia.
I tīmata anō te hanganga i te tau 1724 ki te hoahoa o Toakākī Hawksa, i muri i te tono hoahoa tuatahi a Christopher Wren i te 1710, engari i tū anō i te 1727.
I tīmataria a Kārehe Wahine i te rau tau-13, i muri i te kaupapa o Ngā Marara, engari ko te kōpeka anake me te pūtake o tētahi pourewa i oti i te wā Kotahi.
He ōrite tonu te hītori o te pourewa o Ulm Minster, i tīmata i te tau 1377, i tū i te tau 1543, a, kāore anō kia oti tae noa ki te rau tau-19.
He āta whakaawe ake te Whare Karakia o Burgos e Ūpa ki te Raki.
Ko te whakataki pereti te momo aroturuki tuatahi i hangaia, e puta ake ana i te wāhanga o muri o Ngā Gothic Tuatahi, o te Āhua Tuatahi rānei.
He mahi ā-ringa te whakataki me te whakapaipai, nā te mea ko ngā matapihi nui rawa o ngā whare o Ngā Kotaki e hiahiatia ana te tautoko mōrahi ki te hau.
"I tae atu te whakataki pereti ki te tiketike o tōna ātaahua ki ngā matapihi o te rau tau 12 o Te Kaitiaki Tūtohi, i roto hoki i te matapihi rōnaki o ""Dean's Eye"" i te Karaka o Taraiwa."
Ko te papa kohatu, he mea whakapaipai ki te momo Gothic, i whakamahia tuatahihia ki Reims Cathedral i muri tata mai i te 1211, i te chevet o Jean D’Orbais.
I pūnoa te whakataki-pae i muri i te c.1240, me te nui haere o te matatinitanga me te whakaheke i te taumahatanga.
I horaina anō hoki e Rayonnant ngā ritenga o ngā momo rerekē e rua i roto i te aroturuki, i reira i whakamahia ai e ngā kāhua o mua te hanganga o tētahi rahi kotahi, he rerekē te rahi o ngā hurihuri.
Ko te tikanga he pūmatua o nga kāhua Āhuahanga e puta mai ana i a rātou ngā pae kōpiko.
Ko te hua o nga hurihuri i whakarurua ki nga hoahoa hanga Y i whakarākaitia anōtia ki nga tāwhiotanga.
I kite te tūtohu tuarua (rau tau 14) i te whakatakitaki whakataki i whakamāramatia ki ngā tākai, i hangaia tētahi hoahoa retiwhitiwhiti (ā-kupenga) e mōhiotia ana hei Whakatakitaki whakataki.
E mōhiotia ana ēnei hanga he oka, he tōmimi ika, he meke rānei.
Ko ngā mahi whakawhārite mō te tūtika me te whakawhānui i ngā rārangi hara o te kāhua Curvilinear e āwhina ana ki ngā hurihuri hāngai kāore i motuhia mai i runga ki raro, i whakawhitia e ngā hurihanga whakapae me ngā pae.
I te nuinga o te wā i tātātia ai nga whakawhitinga e nga tītaka iti.
He rite tonu te taupoki i nga hāraunga, a, i taupokina nga pakitara o roto o te pārekareka me te pūkoro kāpō.
2 I puta mai ngā vaults Barrel, te taka wera rānei i te wā o roma, ā, i whakamāramatia i te wā o NgāRara.
He roa to ratou whakaaro i te hanga i te tinana o te hahi, i koropiko ai nga wahi o te hahi; He ringa kōaro i karangatia ko te waewae, i tua atu i taua mea ki te rawhiti, ki te koaea, e mōhiotia ana hoki he pānui, he kaititiro rānei, i rāhuitia i te nuinga o te wā mo nga minita.
Na te whakawhitinga i karangatia te pāhauhau e porowhita ana i te pūrākau.
Ko nga hāereere o mua, pērā i Āmairangi Kahurangi, e ono nga wāhi taupua, he tīwae kōrere me nga mīrere, i muri iho he ngā kuhunga wahi e whā ngā māmā ake, he kaha ake, he ōrite nga tīwae.
I te nuinga o te wā he poto ngā transept i te tōmua o ngā hoahoa Kōwae Wīwī, engari ka roa kē atu, a, ka hoatu he matapihi rōrahi nui i te wā o Rayonnant.
I Ingarangi, he hira ake ngā hurihanga, ā, he nui kē atu te matatini o ngā mahere papa i roto i nga whare kaitiaki o Wīwī, me te tāpiritanga o ngā Whare Kaitiaki Marama, tētahi Whare Ūpoko makakona, me ētahi atu hanganga (Tirohia ngā mahere o Papakōpera, o York Minster i raro iho nei).
Ko te tikanga e whā nga taumata o te huamanu.
I runga ake i tērā, he taiwhanga whāiti ake, e huaina ana te toruwhā, nāna hoki i āwhina ki te homai i ētahi atu mātotoru me te tautoko.
I whakamahia tēnei pūnaha i te Kaitiaki o Noyon, i te Karaka Heneta, me ētahi atu hanganga o mua.
Ka ngaro atu te tūrapa, ko te tikanga kia teitei ake nga pāhi.
He rite tonu te whakaritenga i inga i Ingarangi, i te Whare Karaka o Hōpere, i te Karaka o Ingarangi, i te Karaka o Ingarangi, i te Whare Karaka.
Na te whakawhanaketanga o te rererangi i whakawhiti ai i te taumaha o te tuanui ki nga tautoko o waho.
I tae te Whare Kaitiaki o Beauvais ki te tepe o nga mea e taea e te hangarau Kowaki.
I whakaritea nga hāraunga Waiwaiki i te tauira o nga aro whakairo a Romana.
I tukua te whakairo o te typuum pū ki te Whakaritenga Whakamutunga, ki te taha maui ki te Puhi Meri, ki te taha matau ki te Hunga Tapu i manaakitia i taua whare karaka.
"I whai rātau i te akoranga i whakapuakina e Hato Tōma Aquinas ko te ātaahua he "ōritetanga o ngā taumira.""
I Ingarangi, i whakakapia nuitiatia te matapihi rōhi e ētahi matapihi takakau.
I karaunatia nga tomokanga ki nga kahurangi tiketike, he haurua pānui kī tonu i te whakairo.
I rākaitia nga pourewa ki o rātau ake haurangi, i te nuinga o te wā ka karaunatia ki te taumata.
Ahakoa i whakawhāititia e nga hāhi o Wīwī te tiketike o te mata, ko nga hāpere Ingarihi, ko ngā hāhi o mua ko Ngā Kotahi, i āta whakawhāititia te whānuitanga.
I takahia e ia te whākaha wīwī o te tiketike, ā, ka whakakore i ngā tikanga tīwae me te tāwhai i roto i ngā tāurunga tauranga, ka hipoki i te mata ki ngā mohiohio tuhituhi whakairoiro tuhituhi (Ā taihoa ake nei ngā mohiohio o nāianei).
I hangaia e te kaiwhakairo ko Anarau Pisano te tatau o te parawhaiwhara mo Paranuku Kaiiriiri (1330–1336).
I te nuinga o te wā kotahi, tētahi awhe rānei, tētahi, he awhi rānei, i te taha rānei o te pūtautau me te mutunga ki te rāwhiti, kia ngāwari ai te haere a ngā pāriko me nga hūtere i te taha ki te rāwhiti.
"I te tuatahi ka whakamahia e Heitara Huka ngā taupuni kohikohi pahekotanga pukapuka me ngā pātene hei whakakapi i ngā pakitara mātotoru, hei whakakapi ki te karaehe poapoa, me te whakatūwhera i taua wāhanga o te whare karakia ki tāna i whakaaro ai ko ""te marama tuatahi"."
Tokotoru nga whare karaka pērā i Te Kaitiaki Tūtohi, e whitu i Tawhiua Kahurangi de Parihi, ko Ngā Kaitiaki Karaihi, ko Te Whare Karu hāpua me Pakipaki, e iwa i te Pākāna o Hato Anitirangi oPakia i Itari.
"I whakapuakina e te rūnanga tuarua o Te Runanga Tuarua o Naihe i te tau kotahi mano e 787: ""E kore e waiho te hanganga o nga whakapakoko whakapono kia waihotia ki te whakaaetanga a nga kaiwaiata; i pā mai i nga tikanga kua whakaritea e te Hāhi Katorika me te tikanga whakapono."
I te hurihanga o te kāhua, ka nui haere te whakairo, te mau i ngā tīwae o te tomokanga, me te piki āta haere i runga i ngā tomokanga, tae noa ki te wā ka hipokina e ngā tānga i roto i ngā wāhanga te mata katoa, pērā ki te Poka Wai, ki ngā hurihanga, a, i te Karaka o Ngā Kōnaira, i te taha o te tawhā.
I tautuhia e tēnei he tauira pukapuka matatini i whaia i ētahi atu whare karakia.
Ko te tūmomo i runga i te tomokanga waenganui i te mata o te hauauru o Pātene-Kahurangi e whakaatu ana i te Whakawa Whakamutunga, me nga whika o te hunga hara e arahina atu ana ki te reinga, a, ko nga Karaitiana pai e mauria ana ki te rangi.
I tino whakaahuatia nga whakamamaetanga o te reinga.
He wāhanga rātau o te karere arokite mo nga kaikarakia tuhituhi, he tohu no te kino me te whakararuraru i te hunga kaore i whai i nga whakaakoranga a te whare karakia.
I whakakapia rātau ki ngā whika i roto i te kāhua Gothic, i hangaia e Eugène Viollet-le-Duc i te wā o te whakaoratanga o te rau tau e 19.
Ko nga whakaakoranga whakapono i waenganui o nga Wā o Waenganui, otirā ko nga tuhinga a Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagite, he tohutohu no te rau tau 6, he mea whai tikanga nui tana pukapuka, a De Coelesti Hierarchia, i roto i nga māngai i Wīwī, he atua te marama katoa.
Ko nga matapihi o te taha ki te raki, i te nuinga o te uriuri, he matapihi e whakaatu ana i te Kawenata Tawhito.
I peitatia nga taipitopito ki runga i te karaehe i roto i te ona, kātahi ka tunua i roto i te mārō hai whakanoho i te karepe i runga i te karaehe.
I noho hai tauira a Sainte-Chapelle mo ētahi atu hāhi puta noa i Uropi.
I tohua te karaehe mārama ki roto ki te karaehe kano, kātahi ko ētahi wāhanga o te karaehe tae he whenua mamao ki te hoatu i te uriuri tika.
Ko tētahi o ngā whare Hākinikana tino harakoa ko te Sainte-Chapelle deNnes (1370s), me ngā taiapa karaehe mai i te papa ki te tuanui.
He tino matatini, he nui te utu mo te waihanga i nga wini karaehe poapoa.
Ko te rōhi he tohu no te Puhi Meri, ā, i tino whakatapua rātau i roto i nga hāhi i whakatapua ki a ia, tae noa ki Parani kahurangi.
I tīmata te Parai de la Cité i Parihi, e tata ana ki Āname-Kahurangi i te 1119, ko ia te whare matua o nga kingi o Wīwī tae noa ki te 1417.
Ahakoa rā, kaore i roa kua taka kētia e te whāinga o te pū, a, no te rau tau-15 i whakahōutia anōtia ki tētahi whare noho ātaahua.
Ko te tauira tawhito rawa i Ingarangi pea ko te Mob Quad o te Kāreti Aotearoa i te Whare Wānanga o Oxford, i hangaia i waenganui i te 1288 me te 1378.
He āhua rite tonu te hanganga o tētahi pūwhakakēkē mātauranga i te Kāreti o Kuini, o Oxford i ngā tau kotahi rau e 1140 tērā pea i hangaia e Māmā Ely.
Ko ētahi kōtiro, pērā i te Kāreti o Balliol, o Oxford, i tangohia he kāhua hōia i nga whare wharau o Ngāki, me nga whawhai me nga taiapa whakapono.
"I tuhituhi ia i te tau 1447 e hiahia ana ia ki tōna whare karu "kia haere āhua nui, kia mā, kia nui hoki te nui, kia whakawehea ngā mahi tino nui rawa o te hiahia me te hanga arokē.""
E rua nga taumata hāereere o nga pakitara i roto, he pōtae kiripaka me nga merlona, me te whakaata i nga pākiwaha ka whakatakatia atu ki runga i nga whakapae.
I karapotitia nga pārae e te moka hōhonu, e paea ana e te whakapiripiri kotahi.
Ko tētahi tauira ora pai ko te Château de Douti, e tata ana ki ngā Nemour.
I whakatūria te tahuringa i ngā wāhi whakawhiti mai i te mea ka anga atu ngā hāhi Rātini ki te Rāwhiti me ngā whare hātepe ki te taha o Mekaha.
Lala Mustafa Pasha Te Whare Kōpere i Pārota, i Kaiperu ki te Raki.
Ka tīmata te whakaahuatanga o te kāhua Gothic he tawhito, he weriweri, ahakoa pāpaku.
Ko Airangi tētahi motu o ngā hoahoa Kotahi i te rau e 17 me te tekau mā 18, he tauira anō te hanganga o te Karakia Derry (i oti i te tau 1633), te Whare Karakia Ohau (c. 1730), me te Karakia Raro (1790–1818).
I hangaia nga pourewa ki te uru e rua o Te Moana o Rōkākā i waenganui i te 1722 me te 1745 e Rōkōkā Hawkskotina, i te whakatuwheratanga i tētahi wā hou o Ngāwheā anō i Ngākauhautanga Kotahi.
E mōhiotia ana tēnei wā o te pānga tohutohu nui ake, e huri noa ana i te 1855–1885, i Ingarangi ko Ngārara Nui a Papatūānuku.
Mai i te hāwhe tuarua o te rau tau 19 kātahi anō, ka nui kē atu te ngātahi i Ingarangi kia whakamahia ai te kāwanatanga o ngā momo whare kāhui-kore, kāwanatanga.
"Ko ngā kaihoahoa horanuku e mahi ana ki ngā hanganga me ngā mokowā waho i te āhua o te whenua o te hoahoa – te rahi, te iti rānei, te taone, te taha kotahi me te pāoho, me te mea "pakeke"" (hangaia) me ngā rauemi "ngohengohe", me te tāpiri i te whanaunga rauropi."
Ka taea hoki e rātau te arotake i ngā tono hei whakamana, hei whakahaere kānataraki hoki mo te mahi hanganga.
Ko te tangata tuatahi ki te tuhi mо̄ te hanga whenua, ko Hohepa Addison i te tau kotahi rau e 1712.
I te wā o te rau tau 19, ka tīmata te kupu kaihoahoa taonga horanuku ki te whakamahia e ngā kaihoahoa horanuku ngaio, ā, i u mārō i muri i Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. me Beatrix Jones (muri o Farrand) me ētahi atu i whakatū i te American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) i te 1899.
Ka taea e a rātau kaupapa te ahu mai i ngā tirohanga pae ki te aromatawai rauropi o ngā wāhi whānui mō te whakarite, i ngā take whakahaere rānei.
Kua whakatūhia a rātau mahi ki ngā kōrero ā-tuhituhia o te kaupapahere me te rautaki, ā, kei tō rātou patu te whakarite matua mō ngā whanaketanga hōu, ngā arotakenga horanuku me ngā aromatawai, me te whakarite whakahaeretanga taiwhenua, ngā mahere kaupapahere rānei.
I nga tau tata nei kua piki haere te hiahia me te āro atu ki nga māra whakarongoā.
I waenganui i ēnei ko te Pāka Tūwaenga i New York City, i te Pāka Tirotiro i Rangitahi, i te pūnaha paka Kānapanapa o New York, o Pākehā Kānapanapa.
He kaiwhakahaere hoahoa ia mo te neke atu i nga whare wānanga kotahi tekau, tae noa ki: Pōnini i Pōnene, i New Jersey; He Takarangi i New Haven, i Kotikatika; me te Awheko Awheata mo Hāre i Boston, i Huhūru.
E āhei ana ngā Mahere Taone ki te mahi i ngā tūmahi ahakoa i ahu mai i ngā kaihoahoa horanuku, ā, ko te ahuwhānui, kāore te marau o ngā papatono hoahoa whenua e whakarite i ngā ākonga kia noho hei mahere taone.
I whakakotahitia e Aketo Burle Mēhihi i Pāhihi te kāhua Aowhānui me ngā tipu me ngā ahurea Maori o Pārihia mō tētahi rerehua hou.
I mōhiotia e ia tētahi pūnaha tātaritanga i ngā apa o tētahi pae kia taea ai te whakahiato i te mōhiotanga katoa o ngā huanga kounga o tētahi wāhi.
Ina mōhiotia e AILA, ka whakamahia e nga kaihoahoa horanuku te taitara 'Kaihoahoa Horanuku Rēhita' puta noa i ngā rohe me ngā rohe e ono i Ahitereiria.
I Roto i Aotearoa, ka taea e ngā Mema o NZILA to rātau tūnga ngaio te whakamahi i te taitara Kaihoahoa Rēhita, NZILA.
Ko te mahi a ILASA ko te whakaneke i te mātauranga o ngā hoahoa horanuku, ka tautāwhi i ngā tikanga teitei o te ratonga ngaio ki ōna mema, me te tohu hoki i te mahi o te hanga whare whenua i ngā mea katoa e pā ana ki ngā mema o te whare wānanga.
I tēnei wā, tekau mā rima nga papatono tohu kai te UK.
"I te tau 2008, i whakarewaina e te LI tētahi puku tono nui e huaina ana ko ""E hiahia ana ahau hei Kaihoahoa Horanuku"" ki te whakahauhau i te akoranga o te Hoahoa Horanuku."
He maha nga kāwanatanga e hiahiatia ana hoki he wāhi mo te whakamātautau ā rohe.
Tae noa ki te rau tau e 6 KORE, kua hipokina kētia e te kirikiri nga tohu o te temepara matua tae noa ki o rātau turi.
Kotahi anō te kaupapa hei tiaki i ngā temepara i hangaia e William MacQuitty ki te hanga i tētahi whāngai wai mārama i te taha o nga temepara, me te wai i roto e pupuri ana i taua tiketike ki te āhua o te Raora.
I whakaaro rātau i waiho e nga temepara te pānga o te tōnga oneone e nga hau koraha.
I waenganui i te 1964 me te 1968, i āta tapahia te pae katoa ki roto i ngā paraka nui (tae atu ki te 30 ngā tōneti, te taupatupatu e 20 ngā tāuhi), te wetewete, te whakarewa, te hiki me te whakaraupapa anō ki tētahi tauwāhi hōu, 65 ine teitei ake, 200 ngā mita i muri mai i te awa, i roto i tētahi o ngā uara tino taumaha o te pūkaha o te whītiki whenua o te hītori.
He tokomaha hoki nga manuhiri i tae ma runga rererangi i tētahi papa rererangi i hangaia motuhake mō te whare tapu, i te huarahi rānei mai i Awan, te taone tino tata.
Ko nga whakaahua koha i te taha o te taiapa mauī e mau ana i te karauna mā o Ihipa o Runga, i te wā e mau ana ngā tānga i te taha hangai i te karauna rua o Runga me Ihipa Raro (pschent).
Ko te whakangākau rongonui rawa e whakaatu ana i te kīngi i runga i ana pere pakihi hariata ki ōna hoariri e rere ana, e mau herehere ana.
Tērā nga whakaahuatanga o Ramehe me Nefertari me nga poti tapu o Amun me Ra-Wākhty.
Ko ēnei rā e manakohia ana ko te rā whānau o te kīngi, me te rā whakawā.
I runga anō i nga tatauranga i hangaia i runga i te pikinga mai o te whetū o Siriu (Koia nei) me ngā mōhiohio i kitea e nga kaihoahoa, ko te tikanga ko tēnei rā ko te 22 o Āperepa.
Ko te mea tuarua tēnei i roto i te hītori o Ihipiana onamata i whakatapua ai he temepara hai kuini.
I tōna tūranga, i tū nga kiriata o nga kuini i te taha o nga pāharao, engari kaore i roa ake i ōna turi.
Ko nga pūmatua o nga pou e mau ana te mata o te Atua Hahoro; e mōhiotia ana tēnei momo tīwae ko Hōhoro.
I te tonga, i nga taiepa ki te raki o tēnei ruma, e rua nga whakangārahu a te kingi me ana mahi puku e whakaatu ana i nga kau ki Hatoro, e whakaahuatia ana hei kau i runga i te poti e rere ana i runga i te papiro.
Kāore tetahi o ngā whare o nāianei i whakapono mai i mua i te rau tau 17, engari i hangaia rātou ki ngā aratuka me ngā hoahoa ōrite i whakamahia i mua.
I tēnei ara ētahi atu kahopa me ētahi atu kōhu, pērā i a Tamdaght pātata mai ki te raki.
Ko nga whare o te kāinga e whakarōpū tahitia ana i roto i tētahi taiapa takahanga, he pourewa koko me tētahi kēti.
He maha hoki ngā whare tūmatanui, whare hapori rānei o te kāinga, pēnei i te wharenui, he whare wīneka, he kahopa (pātanga pēnei i te pātaka) me te Marabout o Sidi Ali, Amer.
I hangaia ki te whenua kōpeke me te poharu, i te nuinga o te wā ka whāranu ki ētahi atu rawa hei āwhina i te kupu whakahau.
Ko Aswan Dam, neke atu rānei, mai i te 1960, te Matatara Tiketike o Aswan, te matatara tino nui rawa o te ao, i hanga i tua atu i te Nile i Aswan, Egypt, i waenganui i te 1960 me te 1970.
Pēnei i te whakatinanatanga tōmua, he nui te pānga o te Matawhānui ki te mātauranga me te ahurea o Īhipa.
Heoi anō, ka puta kē te waipuke maori nei, i te mea ka whakangaromia te katoa o te poro e nga tau o te wai, ahakoa rā he maha te matekai i nga tau pāpaku.
I manakohia kētia te Mahere Awaawa o Rāora e te kaiwhakahaere ā-wai o Ingarangi, a Hākini Etiopia, e tono ana kia penapena wai ki Hūtane me Etiopia, i reira he iti iho te whakaeto.
I te tuatahi, e hiahia ana rāua ko te Hononga o Amerika me te USSR ki te āwhina i te whanaketanga o te matatara.
I taua wā ka wehi te U.S. ka hora atu te tōpūtanga ki te Middle East, a, i kitea ko Nasser he kaiārahi māori o tētahi rārangi ārai pāpāho a Arab League.
I muri i te whakapae a te UN i te whakaekenga a Iharaira ki nga ope Egyptian i Gaza i te tau 1955, ka mohio a Nasser kaore e taea e ia te whakaatu ko ia te kaiarahi o te iwi-a-iwi Pan-Arab mena kaore e taea e ia te tiaki i tana whenua ki a Iharaira.
Kaore a Nasser i whakaae ki ēnei here, a, ka uiui ki te USSR mo te tautoko.
I kī a Dulles he nui ake te riri i te āhukahuka pāpori a Nasū o Haina, e papā tonu ana ki te mahere here a Dulles mō tētahi rōpū toko Xamls.
I mākākā hoki a ia i te whakatūkākā o Nasser, ā, ka ngana ki te tākaro i ngā taha e rua o te Cold War.
I hangaia te toka tino nui me te matatara uku e te Soviet Hydroproject Institute me ētahi kaipūkaha Egyptian.
Na, ka waipuketia e te matatara he wāhi nui, nāna te neke atu i te 100,000 tāngata i whakararuraru.
Ko te aromatawai mo nga utu me nga painga o te matatara kai te taumaha tonu i muri iho i tana whakaotinga.
Kāore i te whakaarohia ngā pānga taiao tōraro me ngā pānga pāpori o te matatara, nā reira e rua tau noa iho te whakaoratanga o ana utu.
I whakaae tētahi atu kaitirotiro, a, i whakaaro ia kia haea te matatara.
Na te roto i whakaiti te parekura o te waipuke, penei i era i te 1964, 1973, me te 1988.
Kua hangahia he umanga hii ika huri noa i te roto o Nasser, ahakoa e uaua ana na te tawhiti o nga maakete nui.
Tata tonu ki te hawhe miriona o te whanau ka whakatinana ki runga i enei whenua hou.
I runga i ētahi atu whenua i whakawaiwaitia i mua, ka nui ake te hua nā te mea ka taea te wai te whakawātea i ngā wā rere hahaka rawa.
I Hūtane, e 50,000 ki te 70,000 ngā Hūtane Nubian i nekehia mai i te taone tawhito o Wadi Halfa me ōna kāinga taiao.
I hangaia e te kāwanatanga he kaupapa hawai, i karangatia te New Halfa Agricultural Development Scheme hai whakatō i te miro, i nga kāniwha, i te tīni huka me ētahi atu huanga kai.
I hangaia ngā whare me ngā pānga mō ngā wae kāinga e 47, he mea whakaaro tērā i Te Nubia Tawhito.
Ko te uara nuka i tāpiritia ki te whenua i te parataiao, e 6,000 ngā tāone konurehu anake, e 7,000 tōna tāone waikura me te 17,000 kotahi tōnā hauota.
Ka nui ake hoki te mānahana oneone nā te mea he iti rawa te tawhiti i waenganui i te mata me te tēpu wai whenua (1–2 m e ai ki ngā āhuatanga oneone me te pāmahana) hei whakawātea i te wai kia hutia ake e te whakaeto, kia iti ai ngā wheketere tote i roto i te wai whenua i runga i ngā tau.
Ki te 1950s, kāore anō kia tahuritia tētahi wāhanga iti o Ihipa o Runga i te peihana (tarenga hahaka) ki te awa tūturu (tarenga tiketike).
Mai i tērā wā ka ngaro katoa a S. haematobium.
Ko te tikanga o tēnei ka whakakīa te rōrahi rokiroki tupapaku i muri i te 300–500 tau mēnā ka whakaemi te hore ki te mokatere ōrite puta noa i te horohanga o te roto.
I muri iho i te hanganga o te matatara, ka tere kē atu te tupu o te taru wai ki roto i te wai mōhio ake, he mea āwhina e nga toenga mānawa.
E Mediterranean te hī ika me te hīnga wai pakaua i whakapeka i muri i te mutunga o te matatara nā te mea ko nga nuinga mārō e rere whakararo ana i te Nile ki te Mediterranean i mau i muri i te matatara.
Ko tētahi omanga i mua i te hanganga o te Whānui Tiketike, ko te tōnga tūpāpaku i te paenga moenga awa i te awa o te Matatara, ko te hua o te hakore i takea mai i te rerenga o te wai parataiao.
Ko te mahi hanga pereki whero, e hia rau ngā wheketere i whakamahia ai ngā moni horei Nile i te awa, kua pā kino hoki te pānga kino.
Na te kahunga o raro o te rā o te wai ka hōhonu atu ki roto i te wai o Nile.
I tīmata te mahi hangahanga i te tau kotahi mano 1995, a, i muri i te paunga o ētahi US$220 miriona, i whakatūria manatia te matatini i te 16 o Āketopa 2002.
Kāore i whakaaetia anake e ētahi atu tangata me ētahi atu tūāwāhi nga hākinakina o te whare pukapuka tahito, e tautokona ana e Egyptian nga kaipōrangapū.
I tīmata te whakaurutanga a UNESCO's i te tau kotahi mano e iwa rau e 1986, kia tino ao whānui ai te arotahi o te kaupapa.
Tekau nga mema o tēnei tīma hangahanga e tohu ana i nga whenua e ono.
Ko nga whakataunga tuatahi i whakatūria mo te pūtea i te kaupapa i tētahi hui i tū i te tau1990 ki Aswan: USD $65 miriona, ko te nuinga o nga āhuatanga MENA.
I te tau 2010, neke atu i te 500,000 ngā pukapuka i whiwhi i te whare pukapuka i te Puna Ā-Motu o Wīwī, te rārangi East Asian Books List (BnF).
E tū ana te rūma pānui matua i raro i te tuanui karaehe 32 mita-teitei, ka honga atu ki te moana pēnei i te rārangi, me te whanganga i ētahi 160 m.
Ko te pupuri i nga taonga 1,316, ko te kohinga Antiquities Museum e whakaatu ana i te hitori o te Egyptian mai i te waa o Parao ki te raupatu a Alexander the Great ki nga iwi o Roma i mua o te taenga mai o Ihirama puta noa i Egypt.
Microfilm: Kei tenei waahanga nga kiriata iti tata ki te 30,000 nga tuhinga iti me nga tuhinga 50,000, me te kohinga mai i te British Library, tata ki te 14,000 Arabic, Persian, me nga tuhinga Turkish, e kiia ana koinei te kohinga nui rawa atu i Europe.
Heoi anō, i te tau 2010 ka whiwhi te puna i ētahi atu pukapuka e 500,000 mai i te rūma o Bibliothèque de France.)
Ko te The Great Mosque o Djenné he whare nui, he whare adobe rānei e whakaarotia ana e nga kaihoahoa maha hei tētahi o ngā mahi tino nui rawa o te kāhua taonga o Sudano-Sahelian.
Ko te tuhinga tuatahi e kōrero ana i te wharenui, e Abd al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan tērā e hoatu ana i te hītori o mua, tērā pea mai i te tikanga whakarerekē, pērā i tērā i waenganui i te tekau mā whitu o nga rau tau.
I hangaia e tōna kaiwhakawhiti i nga pourewa o te wharenui, i te hanganga a Sultan e whai ake nei i te taiapa karapoti.
Ko te whare tēnei i kitea e Caillié.
He whare nui te wharenui, he whare iti, e kore ana he pourewa, he whakapaipai rānei.
I oti te hanga anō i te tau kotahi rau e waru tekau mā iwa rau e 1907 te mahi tōpana i raro i te aronga o te Ismaila Traoré, o nga tumuaki o te rūnuku o Djenné o nga kaimahi mapu.
Tērā ētahi taupatupatu, he aha te āhua o te wharenui hanga anō i raro i te āhuatanga French.
I whakaaro a ia he āhua ōrite te whare ki te whare tākeho i whakatapua ki te atua o nga tito.
E kī ana hoki ia he tino pōrangi te iwi o te rohe ki te whare hou, kaore rātau i whakaae ki te horoi, ina whakawehitia rātau e te whare herehere.
Kei te urupa nui ake ki te tonga nga toenga o Almany Ismaïla, he tohu nui no te rau tau e 18.
I ētahi take, kua tāpahia ngā mata taketake o tētahi wharenui, e whakangaro ana i tōna āhua hītori, ā, i ētahi take ka whakakāhoretia te taparenga hanganga o te whare.
I te tau 1996, i whakarite te pukapuka o Vogue i tētahi kaupapa hopu whakaahua  i roto i te whare nui o te hunga Mahometa.
E ono nga huinga arawhata e āheitia ana, i rākaitia ki ia taumata.
E anga ana te pakitara inoi, te qibla rānei o te whare nui o te hunga Mahometa, ki te Rāwhiti, ki Meka, ka tirohia te maakete o te taone.
Ko te koeko o ngā tihi, nga taumata rānei i runga o ia pāreta ka kapi ki ngā hēki otaota.
Ko nga matapihi iti, whakatū hīnaki i runga i nga pātū ki te raki, ki te tonga rānei, e iti iho ai te mārama maori ki te tae ki roto o te hōro.
Ko te pirihipi e whakahaere ana i nga inoi mai i te paepae i te pourewa matua.
Ki te taha matau o te matapa i te pourewa matua, he rua te pukupuku, te turanga, te paepae ranei, e kauwhautia ana e te pirihipi tana kauhau i te Paraire.
Ko nga pakitara o nga ara e anga atu ana ki te marae e piko ana i nga whakatuwhera putanga.
He iti ake i te kokoru pū kotahi, i te mea tuatahi he rua nga pihi nunui o te pourewa, e pāoro ana i te āhua o nga haurangi tomokanga i te pakitara ki te raki.
E hiahiatia ana ētahi rā hei rongoā, engari me whakaoho ia wā, he mahi e taka ana ki ngā tamariki e tākaro ana i roto i te ranunga, nā reira ka whakaoho i ngā ihirangi.
Ka whakatūria he tauomaoma i te tīmatanga o te hākari kia kite ai ko wai te tuatahi e tuku atu ana i te whakapiri ki te wharenui.
I te tau kotahi mano 1930, i hangaia tētahi tārua mātātoa o te WhareNui o Djenné ki te taone o Fréjus i France ki te tonga.
I te wā o te, i whakahaeretia e te wharenui taketake tētahi o ngā pokapū akoranga hira Islam i Āwherika i te wā o te Middle Ages, e hia mano nga tauira e haere mai ana ki te ako i te Quran i roto i ngā māra o Djenné.
I te 20 o Hānuere 2006, na te kitenga o tētahi tīma tāngata e kōtōtiti ana i te tuanui o te wharenui, i ara mai he raru i te taone.
I roto i te whare karakia, ka tāhaetia e te māpu nga kaipōhio whakawaiwai i tukuna e te toko US Embassy i te wā o te tau Iraq War, kātahi ka mīnu haere i roto i te taone.
The Great Sphinx of Giza, ko te mea noa nei e kiia ana ko te Sphinx o Gaza, ko te Sphinx anake rānei, he whakapakoko pākeho no te tātā Sphinx, he mea pūrākau.
Ano hoki, ko te koki me te waahi o te pakitara ki te tonga o te papa, e tohu ana te huarahi ki te hono i te Pyramid o Khafre me te Valley Temple kua oti ke i mua o te whakamahere o te Sphinx.
I te keri anō o te Stele i te tau 1925, i rere nga rārangi tuhinga mō Khaf, ā, i ngaro.
Ko te haahi o te Sphinx i haere tonu ki nga wa wharekarakia.
Ko Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo me nga Giza Pyramids e korerohia ana i nga wa katoa, engari kaore i te tino whanui.
E whitu nga tau i muri mai o tana haerenga ki Giza, i kii a André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) ki te Sphinx "te upoko o te koroni, i hangaia e Isis, te tamahine a Inachus, i tino manakohia e Jupiter". "
Ko te Sphinx a Johannes Helferich (1579) he kanohi-kowhatu, he uma-uma he parani, he makawe rawe tona; Ko te Tihi noa iho i a Thévet ko nga makawe e kii ana i nga uira o te potae.
Ahakoa kei te tika ētahi o ngā aho i runga i te Hataela, e whakahē ana tēnei haerenga i te whakaaturanga tuakana, e whakaarohia ana he whakahōutanga hītori o Mua, he mea tūtohu tūturu, i waihangatia e nga tohunga paetata hei whakamātau i te temepara o Nīhi o nāianei ki tētahi hītori tahito kāore anō kia puta i a ia.
"Engari, ko ngā kitenga o nā tata nei, ka tino whakaatu, kāore i hangaia i mua i te kingitanga o Te Kāri, i te tuawhā o nga rangatiratanga o te rangatiratanga o te tuatahi o nga rangatiratanga."""
Maspero i whakapono ko te Sphinx he whakamaharatanga tawhito rawa i Egypt"."
i taka tētahi wāhanga o tōna wāhanga mātāmua i te 1926 nā te horo, nāna hoki i tapahi hōrori atu ki tōna kakī.
He uaua kē atu te apa i tāwhiwhitia ai te māhunga.
Ko ētahi atu pūrākau e whakaaro ana ko te mahi a Mamluks.
E ai ki a al-Maqrīzī, he maha nga taangata e noho ana i taua takiwa i whakapono ko te piki ake o te tihi o te Giza Plateau hei utu mo te mahi whakanekeneke a al-Dahr.
I kī a Al-Minufi ko te Alexandrian Crusade i te tau 1365 he whiu tuatahi mo te hakari i hakari i te kanaka o Sa'id e whati ana i te ihu.
E whakaarotia ana te whakaaro koiora i roto i te akoranga, nā te mea kāore he whakaaturanga kuputuhi, ā-whenua rānei e tautoko ana i tēnei hei take mo te takotoranga o te Sphinx.
Tērā tētahi kōrero roroa o te taurangi mo nga ruma hunahuna i raro i te Sphinx, na nga whika kōrero pērā i a H. Matapākena Lewis.
E whakapono ana ko ia te tuarua o ngā wāhi hītori i toroa i Egypt; Ko te wāhanga tara o Giza anake e tata ana ki Cairo ka whiwhi toronga atu anō.
Ko ērā atu wāhanga e toru, ko te Rohe o Mut, te Rohe o Montu, me te Temple o Amenhotep IV kua wetehia, e katia ana ki te iwi whanui.
I whakangaromia te temepara taketake, ā, i whakaorangia ētahi wāhanga e te Hatshepsut, ahakoa i hangaia e tētahi atu parao huri noa kia taea ai te huri i te arotahi, i te takotoranga rānei o te wāhi tapu.
I tīmata te hanganga o ngā temepara i te tua Middle Kingdom, a, ka noho tonu ki roto i nga wā o Ptolemaic.
Ko nga tikanga e tohu ana i te awhe i ētahi o nga karakia tuatahi ki a rātau i koropiko a muri ake nei i roto i te hītori o te ahurea Ancient Egyptian.
Tērā pea i whakarewaina ēnei pūranga ki ēnei teitei mā te whakamahi i te kāwhiu.
Mehemea i whakamahia te pōhatu mo nga hīra, kāore i taea e rātau te whakamahi i te rawaka iti iho.
I kawea te whakairo whakamutunga i muri i te whakanohotanga o nga pahū kia kore ai e pakaru i te wā i whakatakotoria.
Ko te taone nui o Thebes kaore e tino whai tikanga i mua o Eleventh Dynasty me te whare temepara o mua he iti nei, me nga whare tapu i whakatapua ki nga atua wawe o Thebes, te atua Earth a Mut me Montu.
Ko Amun (ko Amen te ingoa i etahi wa) he atua tuturu no Thebes.
Ko nga mahi hanga nui i te Takiwa o Amun-Re i tu i nga tau Eighteenth Dynasty, ko te whenua ko Thebes te taone nui o te Unified Ancient Egypt.
Ko tētahi atu o ana kaupapa i te pae, ko Karnak's Red Chapel, Chapelle Tukutuku rānei, i whakaritea hei tapuwae para, ā, tērā pea ka tū i waenganui i ana otaota e rua.
E mōhiotia ana ko te hunga whakaponokore kāore anō kia oti, ka whakaaturia mai e ia te whakakitenga o te weriweri.
Ko te huringa nui whakamutunga ki te tahora o Te Rohe o Amun-Re ko te tāpiritanga o te First Pylon me nga pakitara nui e karapoti ana i te rohe katoa, i hangaia e Nectanebo I o te Thirtieth Dynasty.
Ko The Karnak Temple Complex te mea tuatahi i whakaahuahia e tetahi Venetian kaore i mohiotia i te 1589, ahakoa kaore i whakaingoatia e tana kaute taua waahi.
Ko nga tuhinga a Protais mo ta raatau haerenga i whakaputahia e Melchisédech Thévenot (Nga hononga de divers voyages curieux, 1670s-1696 putanga) me Johann Michael Vansleb (The Present State of Egypt, 1678).
Ka mahi te anga me te whakaoratanga i muri i te tīma Johns Hopkins University, nā Betsy Bryan (tirohia ki raro nei) kua whakatuwheratia te Rohe o te ki te iwi whānui.
I te tau 2006, ka whakaaturia e Betsy Bryan ōna kitenga o tētahi hākari, arā, ko te tīwēwētanga mōhiotia i roto i te waipiro.
Ko ēnei kitenga i kitea i roto i te temepara o Mut, nā te mea i te wā i kaha ake ai a Thebes, i riro ki a Mut ngā Atua Wahine, ko Sekhmet me Bast, ētahi o ōna āhuatanga.
I roto i tētahi pūrākau o muri ake i tupu i te hākari haurangi Sekhmet tau, ka hanga a Ra, i taua wā, te ra, te atua o Runga Egypt, i whiwhi ai ia i te kanohi muramura i whiwhi i tōna whaea, ki te whakangaro i te hunga mate i whakatakoto he kino ki a ia (Lower Egypt).
Ko te Luxor Temple he whare nui no te temepara o Ancient Egyptiann kei te taha rawhiti o te Nile River i te taone e kiia nei ko Luxor (Thebes tawhito) a i hangaia i te 1400 BCE.
Ko nga Temepara Toro e wha o nga Toro Temepara na nga Kaihoroi wawe i uru atu te Temepara o Seth i Gurnah, te Temepara o Hatshepsut i te Deir el Bahri, te Temepara o Ramesses II (ara, Ramesseum), me te Temepara o Ramesses III i Medinet Habu.
Ki muri o te temepara he whare karaka i hangaia e Amenhotep III o te tua18 o Dynasty, me te Alexander.
E kīia ana tēnei pōhatu oneone ko te hōnga oneone o Nubian.
Alexander Badawy, "Nekehe i roto i te Egyptian Architecture," Ngā Akoranga i roto i te Haumana Awa Motuhenga, 35 (1969): 23.
I te taha o te ara ka whakatūria nga pou mo nga hākari pērā ki te Feast of Opet, e whai tikanga ana ki te temepara.
Ko Lalibela he taone nui i te rohe o Lasta, i te Rohe o Wollo ki te Rohe o Amhara, Etiopia.
Ki a Christians, Lalibela tetahi o nga taone nui o Etiopia, tuarua ki Axum, me te taone nui o te haerenga manene.
Ko nga ingoa o nga waahi maha o te taone hou me te whakatakotoranga whanui o nga whare karakia haahi-toka ano e kii ana i nga ingoa me nga tauira i kitea e Lalibela i a ia e tamariki ana i te me te Holy Land.
Ko te whakapono Christian he whakaaweawe i nga ahuatanga me nga ingoa Paipera - ara ko te awa o Lalibela e mohiotia ana ko te River Jordon.
Ko te tohunga Portuguese a Francisco Álvares (1465–1540), i haere tahi me te Portuguese Ambassador i tana haerenga ki Dawit II i nga tau 1520.
Ko te manuhiri European i muri ka puta ki Lalibela ko Miguel de Castanhoso, i mahi hoia i raro i a Cristóvão da Gama ka mahue a Ethiopia i te 1544.
I tapahia hoki ōna pou i te maunga.)"
Tērā ētahi tautohetohe mo te wā i hangaia ai ētahi o nga hāhi.
E rua nga momo whare kahurangi i kitea i te rohe i roto i tana rīpoata.
Saint Catherine's Monastery, hei te mana o ngā Monastery Tapu o te God-Trodden Maunga o Sinai, he motu Eastern Orthdox kei Sinai Peninsula, i te waha o te āpiti i te waewae o Mount Sinai, e tata ana ki te taone o Saint Catherine, kei Egypt.
Ko te monastery o Saint Catherine kei raro i te marumaru o tetahi roopu o nga maunga e toru; Ras Sufsafeh (pea "Mount Horeb" "c.1 km ki te hauauru), Jebel Arrenziyeb me Jebel Musa, te" "Biblical Mount Sinai" (tihi c.2 km ki te tonga). "
Catherine i whakahaua e ia te kawenga kia tīmata.
Na te Emepera Justinian I (te 527-565) i hanga te whare ohu, ana ko te whare karakia Bush Burning (e mohiotia ana ko Saint Helen's Chapel ") i whakahaua kia hangaia e Empress Consort Helena, he tino ataahua te whaea o Constantine, ana i kii Moses te kitenga o tetahi ngahere mura. "
He wāhi tapu tenei ki ngā hunga Karaitiana, Ihirama, Hūraitanga anō hoki.
I te whitu o nga rau tau, ka whakakorea ngā punga Christian o Sinai: ko te whakapae anake o te huihui i āraitia.
Mai i te wā o te Crusade tuatahi, i tupu te whaipaanga o ngā Karaitiana Pakeha, na te kanohi kitea o ngā Crusaders ki Sinai tae noa ki te tau 1270, te tokomaha o ngā hunga manene totika i toro atu ki te whare rangatira.
He rangirua te tūnga whakahaere tika o te whare karakia i roto i te Eastern Orthodox Church: e ētahi, tae atu ki te whare karakia tonu, e whakaarotia ana he whare karakia motuhake, e ētahi atu i raro i te mana o te Greek Orthodox Church o te Jerusalem.
Engari i te tau 2003, i kitea ngā kairangahau o Russia i ngā mahi taake i runga i te tuhinga i hainatia e te Council o Cairo Metochion me Archbishop Callistratus, i te 13 o Noema 1869.
Palimpsests e mōhiotia ana mo te whakamahinga anō i te kotahi neke atu rānei o nga rau tau.
Tata ki te waru meneti te roa o ia whārangi hei karapa katoa.
Ka tīmata te kohinga ata nui ki ētahi ruarua o ngā hāngai ki te 5 (tērā pea) me ngā rau tau 6, he mea ora ahurei; Kaore anō kia wehe kore te whakapae a te tapawha o Byzantine, a, kore rawa i pīngia.
Ko te atawhai i ōna hanganga, peita, me ngā pukapuka, ko te nuinga o te take a te Tūranga.
Ko tōna rahinga e whakaata ana i te āhuatanga ake o te wā.
I hangaia ki runga i te wāhi o tētahi temepara iti iho i whakatapua hoki ki Horus, ahakoa i hangaia te hanganga o mua ki te rawhiti-uru, kaua ki te raki-tonga me tērā o te wāhi o nāianei.
I pakaru te temepara o Edfu hei tohu whakapono whai muri i te whakatoi a Theodosius i nga tauiwi me te ture aukati i nga karakia kore-Karaitiana i roto i nga tau Roman Empire i te 391.
I roto i ngā rau, ka tanumia te temepara ki te hōhonutanga e 12 mita (39 ft) i raro i te kirikiri koraha e neke ana, me ngā apa parahua awa i whakatakotoria e te Nile.
I te tau 1860 Auguste Mariette, i tīmataria e te French Egyptologist, te mahi o te whakawātea i te temepara o Ehu i nga kirikiri.
Great Zimbabwe he tāone o mua i nga pukepuke ki te tonga ki te tonga o te Zimbabwe e tata ana ki Lake Mutirikwe me te taone o Masvingo.
E whakapono ana a Zimbabwe nui kua mahi hai whare kingi mo te ariki o te rohe.
I hangaia rātau me te kore moata (pōhatu maroke).
Ko ngā toronga tuatahi i whakaūngia e te Europeans i te tōmuritanga o te rau tau 19, me ngā tūhuratanga o te pae e tīmata ana i te 1871.
E The Great Zimbabwe nga wāhi i whakataua e te AD o te rau tau 4.
E whakapono ana a David Beach ko te taone me tōna whenua, ara te Rangatiratanga o Zimbabwe, i tupu mai i te 1200 ki te 1500, ahakoa he āhua tawhito rawa mō tōna matenga, he whakarārangi nā tētahi whakaahuatanga i tukuna i nga tau 1500 ki João de Barros.
E mohiotia ana ko te Hill Complex, ko te Valley Complex me te Great Enclosure.
Kua wehea te The Valley Complex ki te Upper me te Lower Valley Ruins, me nga waa rereke o te mahi.
Ko te mana o te mana i neke mai i te Hill Complex i te rautau 12, ki te Great Enclosure, te Upper Valley me te mutunga ko te Lower Valley i te timatanga o te rautau 16.
Ko ētahi atu taonga tahito ko nga purapi kohatu hopi (ko tētahi o ēnei i roto i te British Museum), te uku, te pahū rino, te rei, te rino me te kapa waea, nga hone rino, ngā toa rino, ngā pōhatu kōwhao, ngā kopa kōpae, me ngā pire koura, ngā kōmore.
Ko taua tauhokohoko ao whānui i tua atu i te hokohoko ahuwhenua o te rohe, i tino hira ai te kau.
E Portuguese nga kaihokohoko i rongo mo nga toenga o te tāone ā-roto i te omuaraa o te rau tau 16, ā, e ora ana ngā pūkete i ngā uiuinga me ngā tuhipoka i mahia e ētahi o rātau, e hono ana i a Zimbabwe Nui ki te mahinga koura me te hokohoko tawhiti.
I kii ia ko te piki i kitea i tenei ra ki te wa o Ptolemaic (c. 323-30 BC), i te wa e kawe ana nga kaihokohoko Greek i Alexandria i nga taonga tawhito o Egyptian me nga pseudo-antiquities ki te tonga o Africa.
Bent he whakaakoranga ā-whanaungatanga whai tikanga a Piko, engari i tino nui te haerenga i roto i te Arabia, Greece me te Mir o Āsia.
He whakarerenga tawhito, he Jewish, he South Arabian rānei nga hekenga mai i to rātau aho tāne.
Ko te kereme a Lemba i purihia e tetahi William Bolts (i te 1777, ki nga mana o Austrian Habsburg), me tetahi A.A. Anderson (e tuhi ana mo tana haerere ki te raki o te Limpopo River i te rautau 19).
I te tuatahi ka ngahoro a ia e toru nga poka whakamātautau ki te mea i panaia e ia he puranga i runga i nga papakākā o te maunga matatini, ma te whakaputa i te whāranu tārai uku me te mahi rino tē māramatia.
Ināianei tonu ka pānuitia e Caton Thompson tōna ariā taketake Bantu ki tētahi hui o te British Association i Johannesburg.
Ko te whakaaturanga irirangi he huinga inenga e 28, engari ko te whā tuatahi, mai i nga rā tuatahi o te whakamahinga o taua aratuka, ā, kua kitea ināianei he hē, e tautoko ana i te wāhanga o te rau tau 12-ki-te-15.
Na te tangohanga o te koura me nga taonga i nga kari mātauranga e nga ārai pākehā o te kāinga tūpāpaku i pārahara ai, i ahu mai i te Richard Nicklin Hall.
Ka tuhituhi a Preben Kaarsholam pana nā ngā rōpū tūroi whenua, pango rānei i whakatara mai i mua o Great Zimbabwe ki te tautoko i to rātau kitenga i konei o te whenua, mā te pāpāho o te hītori rangatira me te kōrero pono.
Ko te whakaaro a Pikirayi raua ko Kaarsholm ko tenei whakaaturanga o Great Zimbabwe i whai waahi ki te whakatenatena i te noho me te haumi ki te rohe.
I te tau 1980, i whakaingoa anōtia te whenua motuhake hōu e mōhiotia ana mō te pae, ā, ko ōna whakairo kohatu rongonui i pupuritia mai i te haki o Rohihi me te Coat of Arms hei tohu ā-motu, ā, i whakaaturia ki te haki hou o Zimbabwe.
Ko tētahi tauira o mua ko te pukapuka Kāni Mufuka's, ahakoa kua tino whakahētia te mahi.
I hangaia hei pupuri i te hitori o te whenua kei mua i te ao pouri mo te ao.
He maha ngā kāhua hangarau e whakaaturia ana e te pae, he mahara ki ngā kāhua i kitea i waenganui o Mehiko me ngā kāhua Puuc me Ngā Chenes o ngā rawa o Northern Maya.
Tērā pea ko te taone te nuinga o te ao o Maya, he āhuatanga tērā pea i āwhina ki ngā momo kāhua hoahoa i te pae.
Ko tētahi whakamāoritanga mō Itza ko te tohunga maori" o te wai,"" mai i tōna (itz), ""kaikino", me ha, ""wai"."
Ka tiakina e tēnei puka te āhuatanga ā-waha i waenganui i te wā me te ch, mai i te mea ka tīmata te kupu pūtake o te WōteTete (heoi anō, kāore i te ātetetia i Maya) ki te tīmata i tētahi ejekā tarapū ā-poutāpeta.
O ēnei tuhipoka, ko te "Cenote Sagrado, te Cenote Tapu rānei (e mōhiotia ana hoki ko te Sacred Well, Well o Te Patunga Tapu rānei), te tino rongonui."
Engari, i hangaia kētia te rōpū tōrangapū o te taone e tētahi pūnaha "multepal, e whakaahuatia ana hei rangatiratanga mā te kaunihera e whai ana i ngā mema rārangi whakahaere ā-rangatira."
Heoi anō, ki te mutunga o te Late Classic, ki te wāhanga tuatahi o te Terminal Classic, ka noho te pae hei pū matua ā-rohe, he whakawhānui i te tōrangapū me te whakawhanake i ngā tōrangapū, o te mahi māori, me te ora pūnaha i te raki o Maya.
Hunac Ceel ēhē ana te poropiti i tōna ake whakatikatanga ki te mana.
Ahakoa he tohu whakapūranga e tohu ana i te Chichén Itzá i te wā kotahi i pāhuatia me te pēkehia, te āhua nei he whakaaturanga nui ake kāore i taea e Maypan, kāore i te iti rawa i te wā i noho ai te Chichén Itzá hei pokapū taone hohe.
I muri i te mutunga o te Chichén Itzá nga ngohe āhua rangatira, kaore pea te taone i waihotia.
I hoki mai a Montejo ki Yucatán i te tau 1531 me nga hoia a ka whakapumautia tona turanga matua i Campeche i te taha hau-a-uru.
I te mutunga ka tae a Montejo Tamaiti ki Chichen Itza, ka tapaina e ia ko Ciudad Real.
Ka taha nga marama, engari kaore he āwhina i tae mai.
I te tau 1535, Spanish katoa i peia mai i te Pene o Yucatán.
I te 1860, ka rurihia e Désiré Charnay a Chichén Itzá me te tango i nga whakaahua maha i whakaputaina e ia i Cités et ruines américaines (1863).
I whakaingoatia tēnei e Augustus Le Plongeon ko "Chaacmol" (whai muri ake, i tapaina ko "Chac Mool", koinei te kupu hei whakaatu i ngā momo āhuatanga katoa o tēnei whakapakoko i Mesoamerica)."
I te 1894 ko te Kaitohutohu o te United States ki Yucatán, ko Edward Herbert Thompson, i hoko i te Hacienda Chichén, tae atu ki nga ururua o Chichen Itza.
Ko Thompson te tino rongonui mo te tāhae i te Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) mai i te 1904 ki te 1910, i reira ia i whakaora ai i ngā mahi whakairo koura, kopa me te jade whakairo, tae atu ki ngā tauira tuatahi o ngā mea i whakaponohia hei kākahu rākau o Kopipia Maya me ngā patu rākau.
The Mexican Revolution me te koretake o te kawanatanga, me te World War I hoki, i roa te kaupapa i roa te tekau tau.
I taua wa tonu, ka keri te kaawanatanga o Mexico me te whakahoki mai i a El Castillo (Temple o Kukulcán) me te Great Ball Court.
Ko Thompson, kei roto i te United States i tera wa, kaore i hoki mai ki Yucatán.
I te 1944 ka whakatau te Mexican Supreme Court kaore a Thompson i takahi ture, ka whakahokia a Chichen Itza ki ona uri.
Ko te tuatahi i tautokona e te National Geographic, a, ko te tuarua e nga painga tūmataiti.
I hangaia te taone nui i runga i nga whenua pakaru, i whakaitihia kia taea ai te hanga i nga roopu hoahoanga nui, me te whakapau kaha ki te haangai i nga waahanga mo te koorara Castillo, me nga roopu Las Monjas, Osario me te Matua ki te Hauauru.
He maha o ēnei whare pōhatu i peitatia tuatahi ki ngā tae whero, kākāriki, kikorangi, papura hoki.
Rite tonu ki nga whare kawe koha i Europe, he nui atu te āhua o te tika o nga tae, ā, i tino āwhina ki te pānga tohu o nga whare.
Ko te hanga kāhua Puuc e āhua ana i te āhuatanga o runga kua rākaitia kāhua-mohi, engari he rerekē i te hoahoa o te manawa o Puuc i roto i o rātou pātū paraka, e ai ki ngā kaipihi pai o te rohe Puuc e tika ana.
Kei te pūtake o ngā kaho o te kaupae kei te tai whakarua, ka kitea he whakairo o ngā upoko nākahi.
I muri i te tīmatanga hē maha, ka kitea e rātau he pikinga i raro i te taha ki te raki o te tara.
The Mexican na te kāwanatanga i whakakōkari he kauhanga mai i te papa o te ara ki te raki, tae noa ki te temepara huna o te tara, a, ka whakatuwheratia ki nga tūruhi.
I te pae kotahi, kua whakarerea tētahi o nga kaitākaro; E puta ana nga pūkaki toto i te āhua o nga kōrere whakawiri.
Kai te taha ki te tonga tētahi atu, he nui ake te temepara, engari i roto i nga whara.
Kai roto he kōataata nui, he nui te ngaromanga, e whakaatu ana i te tirohanga riri.
I hangaia ki roto i tētahi kāhua o Maya me Toltec, he pikinga e piki ana ia taha e whā.
I kitea e ōna kaitohutohu roto he kohinga koeko rahi i whakairohia i roto i te pōhatu, ko te take kāore i te mōhiotia.
"I puta mai tōna ingoa i te rangatū o nga aata i te tihi o te hanga e tautokona ana e ngā whika iti o nga tāngata whai ringa whakairo, e kiia ana ko ""ngā atlanita."""
E ōrite ana tēnei matatini ki te Temple B i te pūmatua Toltec o Tula, ā, ka tohu i ētahi momo hoapā ahurea i waenganui i ngā rohe e rua.
Ko tēnei whare tākaro, he hāngai ki tētahi hanganga o mua, ko Te Temple o Chac Mool.
Kei te taha tonga o te Roopu Thousand Columns tetahi roopu e toru, iti ake, whare honohono.
Ka whakaaturia tētahi wāhanga o te mata o runga me te wairua x me te o ki mua o te hanganga.
Ko te Temple o Xtoloc he temepara i whakaorangia inā noa nei i waho o te Osario Platform.
Kei waenga i te temepara o Xtoloc me Osario etahi hanganga e hangai ana: Ko te Papa o Venus, he rite ki te hoahoanga ki te hanganga o te ingoa kotahi i te taha o Kukulkan (El Castillo), te Platform o nga Tombs, me tetahi waahanga iti, porowhita he kore ingoa.
The Casa Colorada (Spanish for "Red House") tētahi o ngā whare tohu pai rawa i Chichen Itza.
I te tau 2009, i whakahokia e INAH tētahi kōti pōro iti i taha o te pātū o muri o te Casa Colorada.
Kua roa nei te whakamahinga o te ingoa o tēnei whare e ngā hunga paetata o Maya, ā, e kī ana ētahi kaituhi, i riro ia i tana ingoa mai i tētahi peitatanga o te tia kua ngaro atu.
I huaina e te Spanish tēnei matatini Ko Las Monjas (The Nuns", "The Nunnery"), engari he whare kingi kāwanatanga tērā."
Ko enei tuhinga e korero ana i tetahi rangatira ko Kʼakʼupakal te ingoa.
Kai roto i te pikinga tōrino tōna ingoa.
E whitu nga mata o te anga ki te uru.
Kotahi te tomokanga o te taha ki te tonga o te whare.
Kai roto i tētahi o nga ruma, e tata ana ki te tuanui, he tānga ringa kua peitatia.
Kua tino mōhiotia te tauwāhi o te ana i ēnei wā.
E. Wyllys Andrews IV i whakamōhio hoki i te ana i nga 1930s.
I te 15 o Mahuru 1959, ka kitea e José Humberto Gómez, he kaiārahi paetata, he pakitara teka i roto i te ana.
Ahakoa i mua i te tāngatanga o te pukapuka, ka haere a Pineamine Hāmoana me Pineatara Amepiria me Rāuaira Wahine Friedrichsthal ki Chichen i muri i te tūtakinga o Stephens, a, ka whakaputaina nga hua o nga mea i kitea e rāua.
I te tau kotahi mano 1923, i whakatuwheratia e Kāwana Carrillo Puerto te huarahi ki Chichen Itza.
I te 1930, i whakatuwherahia te Hotel Hotera Mayaland, i te raki o te Hacienda Chichén, na te Carnegie Institution i tango.
I te tau 1972, i whakaritea e Mexico te Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (Ture Ahuwhānui mo ngā Tūtohu Whakamaharatanga me ngā Wāhi Whakakapi, Whaiaronga, Tūranga) nāna i puru ngā whakamaharatanga o mua o te iwi, tae atu ki ērā i Chichen Itza, i raro i te rangatiratanga o te rangatiratanga.
Ka whakaaturia hoki e ngā kaiārahi tapoi i tētahi pānga mataaho motuhake ki Chichen Itza: he paki ringa i mua i te kaupae o te kohatu keokeo o  El Castillo, mā te pāoro e ōrite ana ki te wheko o te manu, rite tonu ki tērā o te manu quetzal, e ai ki ngā rangahau o Declercq.
Kua katia e INAH, te kaiwhakahaere o te wāhi, i te urunga o te tangata ki ētahi o ngā wāhi whakamaharatanga.
I te timatanga he kaupapa mo te kaiwhakawhanake rawa me te Senator New York State William H. Reynolds, na Walter Chrysler te tumuaki o te Chrysler Corporation i hanga te whare.
I oti te taapiri i te 1952, ana ko te whare Chrysler i hokona te whare i te tau e whai ake nei, me nga rangatira whai muri.
Na nga huringa hōhonu, hangarau hoki i whakaahuatia ai taua wā.
I te tau i muri mai, ka tapaina a Chrysler Time magazine's "Person of the Year" "."
I muri i te mutunga o te World War I, o ngā kaihoahoa o European me American, ka kite i te hoahoa ngāwari hei tauira māmā o te wā o nāianei me ngā whare kōhuneke o Art Deco hei tohu i te kauneketanga, te whakaahuatanga, me te āhuatanga o te wā.
I mua i tana whakauru ki te whakarite whare, i tino mōhiotia a Hētere mo te hanga tākaro Coney Island's Dreamland tākaro.
I te tau 1927, i muri i ngā tau takaware maha, ka utua e Reynolds te kaihoahoa o William Van Alen hai hanga whare pūrākau e whā tekau i reira.
I whakaritea e Van Alen me Severance tētahi ki tētahi, he kaihoahoa whakaaro taketake a Van Alen, he kaihoahoa whakaaro, a, he kaimahi mōhio a Severance, nāna i whakahaere nga moni o te umanga.
I hurihia anōtia te kaupapa e rua wiki i muri iho, me nga mahere whaimana mo tētahi whare pūrākau e 63.
E hanga ana hoki te Whare Chanin pātata e 56 kōrero.
I whakaaetia ēnei kaupapa i te kotahi mano o June 1928.
I whakatakotoria kētia e ia he hoahoa anō mō te Whare Reynolds, i whakaputaina i a Aukati 1928.
I whakawhiwhia he kānataraki i te 28 o Āhukahika, a, ka oti te whakawāteatanga i te 9 o Whiringa Rangi.
Mai i te tōmuri o te 1928 ki te 1929, o nga whakarerekētanga moata ki te hoahoa o te kopa.
I raro iho, i tau te whakaaro ki a Walter Chrysler kia whakamahia te whare her tari matua mo Chrysler Corporation, me te mea hoki, he maha nga taipitopito I hua ake, mai I nga waka Chrysler, penei i nga whakapaipai o te Plymouth (tirohia).
I tīmata te hanganga o te whare i te 21 o Hānuere 1929.
Ahakoa he tere o te hanga tīra nui, tata tonu ki te whā nga papa i ia wiki, kaore he kaimahi i mate i te wā o te hanganga o nga mahi tīra o te whare kōtēke.
40 I tīmata te Pātūtāwhiti me te Whare Chrysler ki te tautohe mo te rerekētanga o te whare" tiketike rawa o te ao"."
I te 23 o Atopa 1929, kotahi wiki i muri i te hīkaka i te teitei o te Whare o Hōroro, a, kotahi rā i mua i te tīmatanga o te Pāpātanga o Wall Street 1929, i huihuia te tira.
Ahakoa ko te New York Herald Tribune, ā, he tata tonu te āhua o te hanganga o te pourewa, kaore i rīpoatatia ki te tāutanga o te tira, kia rā anō rā anō te whakatūnga o te tira.
I roto i te roroa o te whare, i whakakāhoretia he tohu parakī parahi e kōrerotia ana "hei āhukahuka i te āhukahuka Mr. Chrysler's o ngā wāhi ki te whakanui i te hui tūmatanui."
I whakaarahia te Chrysler Building mo te $ 14 miriona, engari i whakawhiwhia ki nga taake taone ia ture i te tau 1859 i whakawhiwhia ki nga takoha ki nga papaanga a nga Cooper Union.
Tērā pea i whakangū te manawa o Van Alen ki ēnei kaupapa Walter Chrysler's i muri iho i te whakakoretanga ki te utu i te toenga o tana utu hangahanga.
Heoi anō, ko te whakatūturu ki te Chrysler i tino iti te rongo o Van Alen hei kaihoahoa, arā, me ngā pānga o te Taumahatanga Nui me te whakahēnga tōraro, i whakamutua ai te whakararuraru i tana mahi.
I te tau 1944, i whakaputaina e te kaporeihana he mahere hei hanga i tētahi kare pakiwaitara 38 ki te rawhiti o te whare, i te 666 Third Avenue.
Kua kore te pōhatu mo te whare taketake i waihangatia, a, me tārua motuhake.
I hokona e te whanau te whare i te tau 1953 ki a William Zeckendorf mo te utu mo te $18 miriona.
I taua wā, i pūrongotia ko te hokonga rawa nui rawa i roto i te hītori o New York history.
I roto i te 1961, ko nga wāhi tīra poauau o te whare, tae noa ki te ngira, te karauna, te kokoti, me nga tatau tomokanga, i whakapipitia mo te wā tuatahi.
I hokona e te kamupene te whare mo te $35 miriona.
I pā ki te tau kotahi te tau kotahi tekau mā iwa rau e iwa rau e 1995 te whakaoratanga o te tira.
I whiwhi te ārai i te New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award 1997 mo te tau kotahi tekau mā iwa rau, kotahi tekau mā whā.
I te wā o June 2008, i pūrongotia kua whakaritea te Abu Dhabi Investment Council ki te hoko moni 75% o TMW, he nui 15% mai i a Tishman Toroyer Properties i roto i te whare, me tētahi wāhanga o te hanganga hoko o Trylons i te taha o te tatau mō US$800 miriona.
Nā tēnei i hua ai he 21% te hekenga o te whakapaunga pūngao katoa o te whare, he iti iho 64% i te whakapaunga wai, ā, he 81% te mokatere o te moumou e tukurua ana.
Nga Tikanga Matatika o Te Whaiaro. "
"He whakaaro takenui te whakaaro, he nui ake, iti iho rānei te āhua o te ao mō te āhua o te ao (metaphysics orory of life), te whakaponotanga o te whakapono (āhuatanga pūnoa, āhuatanga rānei o te mātauranga), me te whanonga o te ora (ngā tikanga, ariā uara rānei).
Ka whakakapihia e te Metaphysics nga whakapae kore i kitea i roto i taua haputanga me te tino totika o nga whakapono o te ao katoa.
I te rau tau 19, na te tupunga o nga wānanga rangahau hōu i āwhina ki te whakaaro mātauranga me ētahi atu whakatakotoranga kia tohungia, kia whai haumaru rānei.
I runga i nga Kaitohutohu a te tohunga o te Pyrrhonist a Sextus Empiricus i taipitopito nga momo huarahi i wehewehe ai nga tohunga o nga Kariki o mua ki te rapunga whakaaro, me te kii ko tenei wehenga e toru nga waahanga i whakaaetia e Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, me nga Stoics.
Ko etahi o nga tikanga onamata o te ao e awhinahia ana e Socrates, ko te Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Stoicism, me te Academic Skepticism.
Ko etahi o nga whakaaro nui o te Waenganui ko St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm me Roger Bacon.
Ko nga maatauranga o enei ra ko Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, me Kant.
I roto hoki i ngā mātakitaki mōhiotanga Babylonian he maha ngā tautohe mō te ao mita ā-ao, tērā pea i whakaawe te Ancient Greeks.
I muri mai ka uru te rapunga whakaaro Jewish ki raro o te mana o te mauruuru o te Tai Hauauru me nga mahi a Moses Mendelssohn nana nei i whakauru te Haskalah (te Jewish Enlightenment), te oranga o te Jewish, me te Huringa Huraism.
Islamic ko te whakaaro nui te mahi taumauri e takea ana i roto i te tikanga Islamic, ā, ko te nuinga o nga mea e mahia ana i Arabic.
I hangaia e te whakaaro āhua whakaaro tōmua Islamic nga tikanga whakawhanake Greek i roto i nga tohutohu hōu hou.
I tino whai mana te mahi a Aristotle i roto i nga tohunga whakaaro pēnei i a Al-Kindi (rau tau 9), a Avicenna (980 - June 1037) me Averroes (rau tau 12).
Ibn Khaldun he kaimātakitaki i runga i nga whakaaro o te hītori.
Indian Ko ngā tikanga whakaaro whiriwhiri e tiritiri ana i ētahi momo ariā me ngā whakaaro kī, kua whakaritea ki ētahi āhuatanga rerekē, kua whakaaetia rānei e ngā tikanga rerekē.
Ka whakarōpūtia nuitia te whakaaro āhuatanga Indian i runga anō i to rātau pātahitanga ki te Vedas me ngā whakaaro i roto.
Ko ngā kura e hāngai ana ki te whakaaro o ngā Upanishads, ko ngā tikanga "orokato rānei, ko ""Hindu"" rānei, ka whakaritea kia ono ngā toroa, me ngā hinengaro rānei:Sānkhya, Ioka, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmāsā me Vedānta."
E kitea ana hoki e rātau he manawanui mo te rerenga kētanga o ngā whakamāramatanga taumaha i roto i te Hinduism i a rātau e tiri ana i taua turanga ōrite.
Kei kona ano etahi atu kura whakaaro e kiia ana he "Hindu" ", ahakoa kaore i te orthodox (na te mea ka whakaae ratou ki nga karaipiture rereke hei tikanga, penei i nga Shaiva Agamas me nga Tantras), kei roto hoki nga momo kura Shavism penei Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, Shavism non-rua (ie Trika, Kaula, etc.). "
Ko te whakakāhoretanga e whai ana te tangata i tētahi "tangata, tētahi "wairua" rānei, tērā pea ko te whakaako Buddhist rongonui rawa."
Ko te whakaaro o Jain tētahi o ngā tikanga tawhito" e rua anake e māhorahora ana (tae atu ki Te Buddhism)."
I whakaaro a Jain e pupuri ana ko te ora katoa he himihe, he mau tonu, he manawakore hoki.
I enei rohe, ka puta te whakaaro Buddhist hei momo tikanga tuku iho e whakamahi ana i nga momo reo (penei i te Tibetan, te Chinese me te Pali).
Ko te rapunga whakaaro o te kura Theravada te mea nui ki ngā whenua o Southeast Asia, pera ki a Sri Lanka, Burma me Thailand.
I muri iho i te matenga o te Buddha, ka tīmata ngā rōpū rerekē ki te whakaraupapa i ana akoranga matua, kātahi anō ka whakawhanake i ngā pūnaha whiringarau whānui e kīa ana ko te Abhidharma.
Te maha hoki o ngā kura, ngā kura iti, me ngā tikanaga rapunga whakaaro o nga Buddhist o nehera, me ngā wā tawhito o Inia.
Ko enei tikanga rapunga whakaaro i whanakehia he ariā taatai, torangapu me te matatika penei i a Tao, Yin me yang, Ren me Li.
Neo-Confucianism i whakahaua ki te whānui i te pūnaha mātauranga i te wā o te rangatiratanga o te Waiata (960–1297), ā, ko ōna whakaaro he pūtake ōna whakaaro ki nga whakamātautau mātauranga a te karaehe mātauranga.
I roto i nga wahanga Hainamana i muri mai penei i te Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) tae atu ki te Korea Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) ko te Neo-Confucianism i aratakihia e te hunga whakaaro penei i a Wang Yangming (1472–1529) ka noho hei kura whakaaro nui. a i whakatairangatia e te kawanatanga emepaea.
I ngā takiwatanga moroki, nā nga rapunga whakaaro o tauiwi, i whakauru whakaaro e ngā Hainamana.
Hei tauira, New te Confucianism, nā ngā whika pērā i a Xiong Shili, kua tino whai mana.
Ko tetahi ahuatanga o te rapunga whakaaro Japanese hou ko te "Akoranga a Motu" "(Kokugaku) tikanga."
I te wā o te rau tau e 17, i hangaia e te whakaaro Etiopian tētahi tikanga tuhituhi pakari, pērā i whakaaturia e Zera Yacob.
Ko tētahi atu āhuatanga o nga tirohanga ao taketake American ko to rātau whakaroanga whānuitanga ki nga kararehe me ngā tipu kāore i te tangata.
Ka taea te kite i te ariā o Teotl he momo Pantheism.
Heoi, U.S. Department o nga ripoata a Education mai i nga tau 1990 e whakaatu ana he iti noa nga waahine i tuturu ki te rapunga whakaaro, a ko taua kaupapa ko tetahi o nga waahi iti rawa o te ira tangata i waenga i nga taangata, me nga waahine kei waenga i te 17% me te 30% o nga kaiako rapunga whakaaro e ai ki etahi rangahau.
Tirohia hoki "Nga Tohu me nga Tikanga o nga Kaiako Whakaako me nga Kaimahi i nga Tangata." ""
Kei roto i ōna whakamatautau tuatahi he pēhea te ora pai me te tohu i nga tikanga o te whanonga.
Epistemologists Tirohia ngā pūtake āhua o te mātauranga, tae atu ki te wheako kōaro, te take, te pūmahara me te whakaaturanga.
No te Pre-Socratic o nga whakaaro hinengaro ka whakaritea ki a Pyrrho, te pūtake o te kura hinengaro o Western.
E Empiricism ngā wāhi e arotahi ana ki ngā taunaki kitenga mā te wheako pūoko hei pūtake o te mātauranga.
Rationalism e pātahi ana ki tētahi mōhiotanga tōmua, he mea motuhake i te wheako (pēnei i te arorau me te pāngarau).
Kei roto i te Metaphysics te ao, te rangahau o te ao i roto i ona waahanga me te ontology, te rangahau mo te ao.
Ko te Essence nga huinga o nga huanga e hanga ana i tetahi mea hei kaupapa ake, me te kore hoki e ngaro te tuakiri ahakoa he aitua tetahi taonga na te mea, kaore ano kia mau tonu te tuakiri o te mea.
Na te mea ko te whakaaro totika te mea nui o te katoa o te putaiao, o te ao hapori me te ao o te tangata, ka riro te arorau hei putaiao pono.
New York: Oxford University Perehi.
Heoi anō, ko te nuinga o ngā ākonga whakaaro ā-akoranga ā kō ake nei ka āwhina ki te ture, ki te pukapuka, ki te hīkoi, ki ngā pūtaiao, ki ngā tōrangapū, ki ngā umanga, ki ētahi atu toi rānei
I runga i te whakaaro tohutohu, ka torotoro te whakaaro ā-reo i te āhua o te reo, te hononga i waenganui i te reo, ngā kaiwhakamahi reo, me te ao.
Ko enei kaituhi i muri mai a Ludwig Wittgenstein (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), te Vienna Circle me nga positivist arorau, me Willard Van Orman Quine.
I whakaheehia e ia te tikanga na te mea i hua ai te rereketanga o nga mea katoa ka taea te whakaingoa i tetahi ingoa.
Hei mahi i tēnei, ka whakamātauria e ia he awhe tika nga kupu me nga kīanga pūhui.
Heoi, i te mutunga o nga Cratylus, ka whakaae mai ia he mahi anō ētahi o nga tikanga pāpori, he hē hoki i roto i te whakaaro he tikanga takitahi to nga ingoa.
I wehea e ia nga mea katoa ki nga kāwai o te momo me te tākupu.
Heoi anō, mai i te Aristotle i tangohia ai ēnei ritenga kia whakaritea e tētahi āhuatanga tino ōrite, ka tino whakaarotia ia he kaitautoko o te "tūturu wawau."
Ko tēnei lektón te tikanga (aronga) rānei o ia wā.
He tokomaha tonu nga tohutohu whai mōhiotanga o te reo i te takiwā o te wā o mua.
I whakaarotia e ngā kaipuke o te wā o te whenua o te rā, pēnei i a Ockham me John Duns Scotus, he arorau pūtaiao (pūtaiao reo).
Ko nga ahuatanga o te rangirua me te rangirua i aata tirotirohia, na tenei ka piki haere te hiahia o nga raru e pa ana ki te whakamahi i nga kupu syncategorematic penei me te, kaore ranei, mena, me nga mea katoa.
Ko te huinga o tētahi kupu ko te whakamāramatanga e hoatu ana ki tētahi horopaki tauwhāiti.
Ko te aronui taunaha pērā te aronui o ngā kāhuitanga o nāianei i waenganui i te whakamahi me te whakahua, i waenganui i te reo me te mērā.
Ko tētahi wāhanga o te rerenga pūnoa ko te kupu rerekē, ko te āhua o ngā kupu ingoa, ngā kupumahi, me ngā kupu ahua.
Ka arotahi te āhua o te āhuatanga ā taumauri ki te tikanga o te hanganga hei whakamārama i te pātahitanga i waenganui i ngā wāhanga whai tikanga me ngā rerenga katoa.
Ka taea te whakamahi i te ariā o ngā taumahi hei whakamārama nui ake i te āhua o te mahi o ngā tikanga lexical: ka taea hoki te whakamahi hei whakaahua i te tikanga o te rerenga kōrero.
Ko te taumahi huatau he mahinga reo e whiwhi ana i tētahi hinonga (mō tēnei pēnei, he hoiho) hei tāuru me te huaputa i tētahi take raupapa (i.e., te tono e whakaaturia ana e "He whero te hoiho)."
He māngai motuhake i roto i te hinengaro te tango reo?
Ko te tuatahi ko te tirohanga tohutohu, e tohu ana ehara i te mea ko te nuinga mārō o te reo i akona, engari e akona ana mā te herenga.
E Nativist nga tauira e kī ana he pūrere motuhake kei roto i te roro e whakatapua ana ki te whiwhinga reo.
Ko nga kaimatai reo a Sapir me Whorf i kii ko te reo te mea nui ki nga mema o te "hapori reo" "ka whakaaro mo etahi kaupapa (he whakapae kua taurite ki te pukapuka Nineteen Eighty-Four a George Orwell)."
Ko te tino anga atu ki te tūnga o Sapir–Whorf ko te ariā e whakaaro ana (he nui ake rānei, he ihirangi hinengaro) te manakē i runga i te reo.
Ko tētahi atu tohenga he uaua ki te whakamārama me pēhea te tohu me ngā tohu i runga pepa e tohu ana i tētahi mea whai tikanga, engari rawa ka whakaritea ētahi aronga e ngā ihirangi o te hinengaro.
Kua ngana tētahi atu tikanga o nga tohutohu ki te whakaatu i tērā reo me te whakaaro he takoto tahi – kaore he tikanga whakamārama i tētahi ki te kore tētahi.
Tērā rawa atu, ko nga ariā e whakakaha ana i te āhua o te āhua o te whakaaro ā-hinengaro (tae atu ki te ariā o te tāpare tohutohu) ka huaina te awe o te reo i runga i te whakaaro.
Tērā ētahi akoranga e tohu ana he hanga te mōhiotanga a te tangata ki te kaupapa.
Heoi anō, ko nga kaikōrero Pāniora, Hapanihi rānei, ka kii "i pakaru te ipu i a ia anō"
Kāore ngā kaikōrero Pāniora, Hapanihi hoki, kāore i maumahara ki ngā kaiwhakarite kaupapa ohorere, pērā ki tā ngā kaikorero pākeha.
I roto i tetahi rangahau a German me nga kaikorero Spanish i tono ki te whakaahua i nga taonga e rereke ana te taunga ira tangata i roto i era reo e rua.
Hei whakaahua i tētahi "arawhiti, he wahina wahane i German me te tautātau i te Spanish, ka kī ngā tukuoro German "ātaahua", ""huatau", ""pakipaki", ""kia mau", "ātaahua", "" me te ""pūhihi", "kāinga"
Ahakoa he hoahoa ia manukura, i whakataua rānei e ētahi āhuahira tohunga, engari kāore i kōrerotia e nga kaiuru he aha ēnei.
Mo era atu, ka noho kore ingoa nga kaituanui.
I whakatauhia ko te whakaingoa i nga taonga ka awhina i a tatou ki te whakarōpū me te maumahara.
I roto i tēnei rohe, ko ngā take ko: te āhua o te kupu taurite, te take o te tikanga ake, tō tātou mōhio ki te tikanga, me te āhua o te hanganga (te pātai me pēhea te āhua o ngā wae reo whaitake e whai ana i ngā wāhanga whai tikanga iti iho, ā, he pēhea te take o te katoa i takea mai i te tikanga o ōna wāhanga).
Ko te kaupapa whakaaro o te tikanga, e tino hono ana ki te British empiricist a John Locke, e kii ana ko nga tikanga he whakaaturanga hinengaro i whakaohoohohia e nga tohu.
(Tirohia te ariā pikitia o Wittgenstein mo te reo.)
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Perehi.
Ko te ariā tohutoro o te tikanga, e mōhiotia ana rōpū hei āhuatanga waho, he tiro e ōrite ana ki ngā mea o te ao e hono tonu ana ki ngā tohu.
Ko te tātaitanga tūturu o tēnei ariā ko te tikanga o te rerenga kōrero tōna tikanga o te manatokonga, te whakawāwā rānei.
I tēnei putanga, ko te māramatanga (a, ko te tikanga) o te rerenga, ko te āheitanga o te kaiwhakarongo ki te mōhio ki te whakaaturanga (pāngarau, pirinoa, tētahi atu rānei) o te pono o te rerenga.
Ko te ariā tikanga whai tikanga, ko tētahi ariā e whakatauria ai te tikanga (mōhiotanga rānei) o te rerenga e whakatauria ana e ngā hua o tōna tono.
He kaitautoko a Gottlob Frege no tētahi ariā tohutoro pāpāho.
Ko tēnā whakaaro he whakaaro nui, he whānui, he whāinga.
Ko ngā tohutoro ko ngā ahanoa i te ao e tīpakohia ana e ngā kupu.
I tirohia e ia ngā ingoa tika o te kōmaka i whakaahuatia ki runga ake nei he "whakaahuatanga tūtohu" (tirohia te Ariā o ngā whakaahuatanga).
Ko aua kīanga e whakaatu ana i roto i te mārama, he ahanoa e whakaae ana ki te whakaahuatanga.
I runga i te pūkete a Frege, he atamai tō te kīanga e tohutoro ana hoki.
Ahakoa nga rerekētanga i waenganui i ngā tirohanga a Frege me Russell, ko te nuinga o te wā he kaituhi anō rātau hai kaituhi anō mo ngā ingoa tika.
Whakaarohia te ingoa Arituati me ngā whakaahuatanga "te tauira tino nui rawa o Plato, ""te kaiwhakarewa o te arorau", me "te kaiwhakaako o Alexander"."
Tērā pea i tīari a ia, ā, kāore anō ia kia mōhiotia ki te āhuatanga, kua mate rānei a ia i te kōpū.
Engari he tino tautohe tēnei.
E puta mai ana ngā pātai i runga i nga kaupapa pātata.
David Kellogg Lewis i tono whakautu mārama ki te pātai tuatahi mā te whakapuaki i te tirohanga ko te whakaritenga he tino mau tonu i roto i te whanonga.
I tono a Noam Chomsky kia taea te mahi i ngā mōhiotanga reo i ngā I-Language, i te reo ā-roto rānei o te tangata.
Ko tētahi pūtake hua o te rangahau, ko te tūhuratanga ki nga āhuatanga pāpori e piki ake ai, e pāhono ana rānei ki ngā tikanga me ngā reo.
Ko nga whakaaro e tohu ana i ia tirohanga ariā, he painga ki te tohunga o te reo.
Ko te Rhetoric te akoranga o ētahi kupu e whakamahia ana e te tangata hei whakawhiwhi i te āhua tika o te āhua o te whakarongo, kia whakapakeke, kia whakapātari, kia whai painga, kia whai painga rānei.
He taupānga anō ōna ki te akoranga me te whakamāoritanga o te ture, ā, ka āwhina ki te hoatu i te māramatanga arorau o te rohe o te akoranga.
E pātahi ana te ariā reo ki tērā o ngā arorau i roto i tōna āhuatanga Kariki hei "logos, ko te tikanga o te whakatakotoranga, te whakapāpāho rānei."
He whakakotahihia e Heidegger nga phenomenology me nga hermeneutics a Wilhelm Dilthey.
Hei tauira, Ko Sein (kei te noho), ko te kupu ake, he maha nga tikanga kua waihotia ki te nui o nga tikanga.
Ko te kīanga a heidegger he tāpiri noa iho te tuhituhi, he tāpiri noa iho ki te kōrero, nā te mea ko te kaipānui e hanga, e tāpae rānei i ā rātou ake kōrero"" i a rātou e pānui ana."
I roto i te Pono me te Tikanga, ka whakaahuatia e Gadamer te reo hei "te waenga e whai ana te māramatanga me te whakaaetanga i waenganui i ngā tāngata tokorua.
I tērā taha, i tonoa e Paul Ricœur he tohu whakahirahira, ā, i tūhono anō ki te atamai taketake o te kupu Kariki, i whakahuatia te kitenga o ngā tikanga hunahuna i roto i ngā kupu taurite (ngā tohurānei") o te reo noa."
Mā tēnei e taea ai e rātou te whakaputa tika i te ao o waho kia waihanga aronga mō rātau anō me te tuku atu i tēnei tikanga ki ētahi atu.
Ko etahi mea nui i roto i te hitori o te hunga haurangi, ko Charles Sanders Peirce, Roland Barthes, me Roman Jakobson.
Na te here ki te rau tau 19 i whakamārō te āheitanga tangata me te āhua o te hanganga koreutu.
E werohia ana ngā tirohanga ā-tangata e ngā kaupapa koiora o te reo e whakaaro ana ko nga reo he tītohunga tūturu.
I roto i te whakaaro nā Neo-Darwinism, ko Richard Dawkins me ētahi atu kaitoko o ngā kaupapa tāruarua ahurea e whakaaro ana ko nga reo he tokomaha nga huaketo o te hinengaro.
Kua kī mai ētahi e tautohu ana te kīanga mo ētahi mea tūturu, he mea whakarārangi i roto i te ao e karangatia ana ko "nga toka."
Ka taea te whakanui i te take i konei ki te tirohia e tātau te tono "He Tangata a Harakī."
Mā ēnei mea e rua e hono, e īnaki rānei.
Ko tētahi atu tirohanga ko te whakaaro "tangata" hei āhuatanga o te hinonga, "Karapati."
Ko etahi o nga mema rongonui o tenei tikanga mo nga tikanga whaimana ko Tarski, Carnap, Richard Montague me Donald Davidson.
Kaore rātau i whakapono ka taea te hopu i ngā ahu pāpori me te māia o te tikanga ā-ringa e ngana ana ki te whaimana mā te whakamahi i ngā utauta arorau.
Ko te nuinga o ona whakaaro kua paingia e nga kaiwhakaari penei i a Kent Bach, Robert Brandom, Paul Horwich me Stephen Neale.
I te Word me te Ahanoa, ka tono a Quine ki ngā pūpānui kia whakaaro i tētahi āhuatanga e tūtakia ai rātau ki tētahi tāngata tē āhukahukatia i mua, he rōpū tāngata taketake i reira me ngana rātou ki te mātau ki ngā kōrero me ngā tohu ā-ringa e mahi ai ōna mema.
Ko ngā mea katoa e taea te āta tirotiro i te kōrero hei wāhanga o te whanonga reo katoa o te tangata, kātahi ka whakamahi i ēnei kitenga hei whakamārama i te tikanga o ētahi atu kōrero katoa.
Mō Quine, pērā ki te Wittgenstein me Austin, ehara te tikanga i te mea e here ana ki tētahi kupu, rerenga rānei, engari he mea nui rawa, mēnā ka taea te take, ka taea anake te take ki tētahi reo katoa.
Ko ngā takanga tauwhāiti o te hātea, ko te nuinga o ngā tohutohu reo e hiahiatia ana, ko ngā wāhi e noho ana i "ngā kēhi taitapa" ka kore e taea te kī mēnā he pono, he hē rānei te mōhiotanga.
Ko te putanga whakaaro o te pāngarau ko te peka whakaaro nui e ako ana i nga whakaaro mōhiotanga, nga tūāpapa me nga take o te pāngarau.
I tēnei rā, e whai ana ētahi pūtaiao pāngarau ki te hoatu pūkete o tēnei momo uiui me ōna hua i a rātou e tū ana, ā, ko ētahi e tohutohu ana i tētahi āhuatanga mō rātou e mahue atu ana i te whakamāramatanga māmā ki te tātari taketake.
I tino whakaawetia te whakaaro ā-Kariki mo te pāngarau i a rātau whakaakoranga āhuahanga.
Na reira, 3, hei tauira, he tohu no te tini o nga wae, a kihai i tika"" te tau."
I piki ake ēnei whakaaro ā-Kiriki o mua i te kitenga o te whakawairua o te pakiaka tapawhā o te rua.
E ai ki te poutohu, i tino whakamamaetia nga hoa Pythagoreans i tēnei tūhuratanga ka patua e rātau a Hippasus kia kore ai ia e tohatoha i tōna ariā tuatahi.
He panga hōhonu tērā pea kei runga i te kotahi ringa ko ngā pono pāngarau he torotoro tērā pea, engari i tērā taha ko te pūtake o to rātau tika"" ka noho māmā tonu."
E toru ngā kura, he āhuatanga, he āhuatanga, me te arorau, i puta mai i tēnei wā, hei urupare ki te nui haere o te māharahara, kāore te pāngarau i tū ai, ā, ko te tikanga o te tātaritanga, kāore i mau tonu ki ngā paerewa mō te mōhiotanga me te hīanga kua whakaritea.
I te wā o te rau tau, ka whakawhānuitia te arotahi tuatahi o te āwangawanga ki tētahi hōparatanga tūwhera o ngā pāngarau taketake o te pāngarau, kua homai te whakaritenga o te pāngarau mai i te wā o Euclid huri noa i te 300 BCE hei pānga mō te pāngarau.
I roto i te pāngarau, anō i roto i te ahupūngao, kua puta mai he ariā hou, he ohorere, ā, kua puta mai he huringa nui.
Kāore au i te whakaaro he uaua tūturu ngā uauatanga e kitea ana e te whakaaro ki te pāngarau o te pūngaotanga o te rangi, he uaua tūturu; ā, e whakaaro ana ahau he hē ngā whakamāramatanga whiriwhiringa o te pāngarau e tukuna ana ki a tātau i runga i ngā ringa katoa, ā, ko "te whakamārama ōritetanga" ko te mea kāore i te hiahiatia e te pāngarau.
He tokomaha nga kaikaikarau mahi he kaitiro pāngarau; e kite ana rātau ko rātau anō hei kaitohu i ngā ahanoa e puta noa ana.
Ko ētahi mātāpono (hei tauira, mō ētahi ahanoa e rua, he kohinga ahanoa e hāngai tonu ana ki aua ahanoa e rua) ka kitea he pono, engari tērā pea ka kitea he pono te tatau pātene pānui i runga i aua kaupapa.
Ko te ana o Plato me te Platonism he mea whai kiko, ehara ko nga hononga tuuturu anake, na te mea ko nga whakaaro o Plato i mua me te awe pea o nga Pythagoreans rongonui o Kariki o mua, i whakapono ko te ao, na te tokomaha i hua.
He āhua rite tēnei tirohanga ki nga mea maha i kōrerotia e Huerl mō te pāngarau, ā, e tautoko ana i te ariā a Kant he kaipāngarau te pāngarau.)
He tāupetanga hōu te Pāpāhotanga toto-katoa o te Pureonotanga, ā, nā te mea ka taea te whakamātau i ngā huinga rerekē o ngā mea pāngarau kei te tīariari i runga i ngā ture raupapa me ngā ture hīpoki kua whakamahia (hei tauira, te ture a te hunga i mahue ki waenganui, me te tāpiritanga kōwhiringa).
Ko te tirohanga nā rātou i tautuhi te tūturu (he tautuhi-tautuhi Pāteri) tētahi tūnga i parea e Penelopy Maddy, ko te tirohanga nāna i tautuhi te ariā mō tētahi ao nui.
I whakataua e rātau te kupu taurangi he porowhita kino", ā, i hangaia e rātau ko te mea i huaina e rātau ko te kaupapa momo ramified kia pā ki taua mea."
Ahakoa rā, i kī a Russell, ehara tēnei tāpiritanga i te take o te arotau.
E hiahiatia ana a Frege mō te Ture Taketake V kia hoatu i ngā tautuhi mārama o ngā tau, engari ka taea te takea mai i te mātāpono o Hume, ko ngā āhuatanga tau katoa.
Engari e whakaae ana te kaimahi ki te mahi haere tonu i ana mahi me te waiho i aua raruraru ki te kaipōtuo, ki te kaipūtaiao rānei.
I whāinga a Hihipe ki te whakaatu i te ōritetanga o ngā pūnaha pāngarau mai i te whakaaro he hāngai tonu te tauritenga"" (he pūnaha o te tauhanga tōrunga o ngā tau tōpū tōrunga, i kōwhiria kia tōtika te tauwhitiwhiti).
Nō reira, hei whakaatu e ōrite ana tētahi pūnaha pāngarau, me whakaarohia te ōritetanga o te pūnaha pāngarau, kia kaha ake te punaha, kia ea ko te ōritetanga.
Ko etahi o nga kaitohutohu, penei i a Rudolf Carnap, Alfred Tarski, me Haskell Curry, i kiia ko te pangarau te tirotiro i nga punaha axiom okawa.
Ko te nui ake o nga kēmu e ako ana mātau, ko te pai ake hoki.
Ko te whakahaweatanga matua o te āta whakahaere ko ngā ariā pāngarau tūturu e noho ana i ngā kaikaikarau, kua tawhiti atu i ngā kēmu mātāwhana aho e kōrerotia ana i runga nei.
Nā Brouwer, te kaiwhakaū o te nekeneke i mau ai ka puta mai ngā ahanoa pāngarau i ngā āhua o mua o ngā kōwhiringa e whakamōhio ana ki te kitenga o ngā ahanoa pirinoa.
Ka whakakāhoretia hoki te āhuatanga kōwhiringa i roto i te nuinga o nga kaupapa tautuhi arorangi, ahakoa kei ētahi putanga ka whakaaetia.
I tēnei tirohanga, ko te pāngarau he whakamahinga o te pāpāhotanga tangata, ehara i te tākaro ki ngā tohu kē.
Waihoki ko ērā atu tau katoa e tautuhia ana e ō rātou wāhi i roto i te hanganga, te raina tau.
Heoi anō, ko tōna take matua e pā ana ki tēhea momo hinonga he ahanoa pāngarau, ehara i te ahanoa pāngarau e pā ana ki te momo ahanoa pāngarau, hanganga rānei (kāore, ki tētahi atu kupu, ki tō rātou āhuatanga ā-whakapae).
Ko nga hanganga e puritia ana kia noho tūturu, engari he mea whakawai, he kore whāriki.
E pupuritia ana ngā hanganga kia tīariari, he mea whakaaturia e ētahi pūnaha raima.
Pēnei i te ingoa nama, ka whakakāhore te huarahi tuku iho i te iwi o ngā ahanoa pāngarau whakarākei me ngā āhuatanga atu i tō rātou wāhi i roto i tētahi hanganga pānga.
E pupuritia ana kāore te pāngarau i te ao whānui, ā, kāore i te tīariari i roto i ngā āhuatanga tūturu, i tua atu i te āhua o te tangata.
Heoi anō, kaore he take motuhake a te hinengaro tangata ki te rangirua, ki ngā tohu rānei i hangaia mai i te pāngarau.
Ko te rongoa tino rongonui, rongonui, rongonui hoki o tenei tirohanga ko te wahi i ahu mai ai te pangarau, na George Lakoff me Rafael E. Núñez.
Franklin, James (2014), "He Aristotelian Realist Philosophy o te Pāngarau" ", Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke; Franklin, James (2021)," "Pāngarau hei putaiao mo te pono-kore-tuuturu: Aristotelian realist filosofia o te pangarau," "Nga turanga o te Pūtaiao 25."
Ko te tauanga Euclidean i hangaia e John Penn Mayberry i roto i tana pukapuka The Foundations of Mathematics in the Theory of Sets ka taka ki roto i te ao a te Aristotelian realist.
O Edmund Husserl, i te rōrahi tuatahi o ōna Tohutohu Arorau, e kiia ana Te Prolegomena o te Arorau Tūturu",", i tino whakawāteatia te whakapāpātanga ā-ā-tangata, ā, i whai kia whakawehea atu i a ia."
Arā, i te mea me kōrero te ahupūngao mo nga irahiko hai kī he aha te take e whano ana ngā pūrama kōmā pērā i a rātou, kātahi ko te tikanga kia tīari te irahiko.
E tautohe ana mō te i ai o ngā mea panga pāngarau hei whakamāramatanga tino pai mō te wheako, nā reira i haukoti ai te pāngarau kia wehe mai i ētahi atu pūtaiao.
I tipu mai tēnei i te whakapaetanga tino pai i te rau tau 20 o te rau tau, kaore tētahi o ngā tūranga pāngarau e taea te whakamātau hei tīari.
Ka taea e te tautohe pangarau te tuku te hētanga mai i te mutunga ki ngā kāinga, ā, ka taea hoki te tuku i te pono mai i ngā kāinga ki te mutunga.
I hōmai e ia he tautohetohe mō tēnei ki ngā Aronga Hōu.
Mēnā he āhua kōpūrau te pāngarau me ērā atu pūtaiao, kātahi ko tēnei kī, he rite tonu tōna kitenga ki tō rātou mōna, ā, he rite tonu ki tō rātou pūrere.
Mō tētahi whakaaro o te pāngarau e ngana ana ki te rongoā i ētahi o ngā hē o ngā toronga o Quine me Gödel mā te tango i ngā aronga o ia wāhi, tirohia te Tūturu o Tāraki Maddy i roto i te Pāngarau.
I tīmata a ia ki te "waenga" o ngā kupu a Hilbert ki te whakaahua i te mokowā me te kore whakariterei, kātahi ka tāpiri atu he pānga tāpiri ki waenganui i ngā ira hei mahi i te mahi i mua rā e ngā āpure raupapa.
Mā tēnei pūkete, kāore he raruraru kawekawe, pūnaharau rānei e motuhake ana ki te pāngarau.
Engari, i a ia i runga i tētahi tirohanga iti rawa ko te arotakenga, he āhua taurite ki te ao rangitahi", ko ngā kaiwhakanao pāpori e whakahua ana ko te ahunga o te rangahau pānga e whakahuatia ana e ngā tikanga o te rōpū pāpori e mahia ana, e ngā hiahia rānei o te rōpū mahi moni rānei a te iwi."
Engari ko te hunga hanga pāpori e tautohe ana he nui te tūnga o te pāngarau i whakawateatia e te nui o te mahi pāngarau: i te taupānga o te mahi pāngarau, ka rangiruatia te tūnga o ngā pāngarau o mua, ā, ka whakatikaina ki te waeine e hiahiatia ana, e hiahiatia ana rānei e te iwi pāngarau o nāianei.
Ko te āhua pāngarau o te pāngarau e whakamāramatia ana i roto i ōna mahi roto.
“E kite ana ngā kaitapere pāpori i te tukanga o” “te mahi pāngarau"" he mea hanga tikanga, a, e kitea ana ngā kaiiroiro pāpori tētahi kopaka o te kahapupuri o te hunga tangata ki te whakarārangi, o te tītaha whakaaro hinengaro rānei o te tangata, o te āhua mātauranga kaitātai rānei, hei ārai i te mātauranga o tētahi ao tūturu o ngā rauemi pāngarau."
Ināia tata nei, nā Paul Ernest i āta tātai tētahi whakaaro ā-kaitiaki pāpori mo te pāngarau.
Hei tauira, ko ngā taputapu o te wetereo kāore i te whaaia ki ngā pūnaha tohu o te pāngarau, arā, he rerekē te rautaki rangahau mō te pāngarau ki ēra o nga reo kē atu.
Heoi anō, ko ngā tikanga i hangaia e Frege me Tarski mō te akoranga o te reo pāngarau kua tino whakaroatia e te tauira o Tarski, ko Rākei Rongoāke me ētahi atu kaitapere reo e mahi ana i roto i te mana ā-mana tika hei whakaatu e kore pea te āhua o te wehe i waenganui i te reo pāngarau me te reo tūturu.
Ko te whakapaetanga e whakatauria ana ngā mea katoa"" i whakaritea ki ngā kaupapa pūtaiao, tae atu ki ngā tau, kia whakaaetia he mea tūturu e whakatikaia ana e te hāungatanga whakaū."
Na te āpure i whakaputa ōna whakaaro ki te āhua waihanga.
E tārewa ana te tohenga i runga i te ariā ka taea te hoatu i tētahi pūkete ā-ā-rongo pai o ngā tukanga whakaaro mēnā ka taea te whakaaro pāngarau me ērā atu mea katoa.
Ko tētahi atu rārangi o te haumaru kia mau tonu he hāngai ngā ahanoa whakawaitara ki ngā take pāngarau ki tētahi ara kore take, ā, kāore e ōrite ana ki te whakaaro.
Ma te tauira, e rua nga tohu o te whakakeke o te .
I tino mōhiotia a Paul Erdős mo tōna ariā ki tētahi "Pukapuka noa iho" e pupuri ana i ngā whakatika pāngarau tino huatau, ātaahua rānei."
Heoi anō, na te tohu ōrite, i ngana ngā kaitohutohu pāngarau ki te whakaahua he aha ai he pai ake tētahi tohu, ki tētahi atu mena he arorau te tokorua.
Ko te whakaaro hinengaro he manga whakaaro hinengaro e ako ana i te āhua o te hinengaro me te āhua o te hinengaro me tōna pātahitanga ki te tinana.
Ko te takirua me te haurua ko ngā kura matua e rua o te whakaaro i runga i te raruraru o te hinengaro–tinana, ahakoa he āta puta mai ngā tiro ā-hinengaro kāore e tika te uru ki tētahi, ki tētahi atu kāwai rānei.
Hart, W.D. (1996) "Tuaruatanga Tuarua" ", i roto i a Samuel Guttenplan (org) He Hoa ki te Tohunga o te Hinengaro, Blackwell, Oxford, 265-7."
Pinel, J. Psychobiology, (1990) Prentice Hall, Inc. LeDoux, J. (2002) Ko te Hinengaro: Pehea ai o Tatou Roro ko wai Tatou, New York: Viking Penguin.
Predicates Hinengaro ", i W. H. Capitan me D. D. Merrill, eds.,"
Tērā, ko nga āhuatanga māia o te whakaaro ehara i te āhua o te āhua o te tinana ā-tinana kaore e whakaiti.
Hei tauira, ko te hiahiatanga o tētahi tangata ki te poro pizza, ka āhua whakararuraru taua tangata i tōna tinana i runga i tētahi tikanga tauwhāiti, ā, ki tētahi ahunga tauwhāiti kia whiwhi ai i tāna e hiahia ana.
Horipono, H. (1983): "Takirua Aristotelian", e ako ana a Oxford ki te whakaaro tōmua 1, 123–44.
Tērā rawa rātau ka whakakāhore ko te hinengaro noa iho te roro, ko tētahi atu rānei, ka kite i te ariā, kotahi anō te hunga arorangirangi e purei ana, he wairua noa iho, kāore rānei i te mōhiotia.
Heoi, hei tauira, ka āhei te tangata ki te pā he pēhea te āhua o te matimati tahu, te āhua rānei o te rangi kikorangi, he pēhea rānei te āhua o te pūoro pai ki te tangata.
Tērā e pā ana ki ēnei mahi hinengaro, āhua nei he uaua ki te whakaiti i te kikokiko o tētahi mea ā-tinana.
Nō reira me whakamārama te pānga o te ārohi ki te ao ā tinana.
Heoi anō, ka mau te mātauranga nā te whakaaro i te whenua ki tērā.
Ko te ariā taketake, ka taea e te tangata te whakaaro i te tinana o te tangata, nō reira ka whakahaputia te nohoanga o te tinana tangata, me te kore āhua mōhio e pā ana ki tēnei tinana.
Kua tautohe ētahi atu pērā ki Dennett he ariā kōaro te ariā o te kairoro whiriwhiria, kāore rānei i te āhua.
Ko te tirohanga nā ngā kōrero hinengaro, pēnei i ngā whakapono me ngā hiahia, e tauwhiti ana ki ngā āhuatanga ā-tinana.
Kai te āhua tonu o te tautohenga a Ngā Tāpaita ki te take e whakapono ana a Heta he ariā mārama, wehe"" i roto i tōna hinengaro."
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Bradford) Hei tauira, ko te kii a Joseph Agassi he maha nga kitenga putaiao puta noa mai i te tiimatanga o te rautau 20 kua whakapakeke i te whakaaro kia uru te tangata ki ona ake whakaaro.
Ko Gottfried Leibniz tenei kaitautoko mo tenei tirohanga.
He tūnga takitahi tō ēnei āhuatanga puta, ā, kāore e taea te whakaheke, te whakamātau rānei i ngā āhuatanga ōkiko i puta mai ai.
He whakaakoranga tuatahi a Tōma Henry Huxley te āpīrī.
Kua tiakina tēnei tirohanga e Frank Jackson.
Ko te panpsychism te tirohanga he aronga hinengaro tō te katoa, he āhuatanga rānei, he mea whakakotahi rānei ngā ahanoa katoa i te pūtahi wheako, i te wāhi tiro rānei.
He tauira o ēnei waeine reke o te wāteatanga e homai ana e Allan Wārihi, nāna i kite he tino mārama, tērā pea he hōhā te āhua o te tinana—hei tauira, i a ia e mahi ana i te mahi uaua-ā-ā-rangi i te ngākau hari; i tērā rā, he pōrangirangi te ā-rangi i a ia e whai ana i te whakamarietanga ōkiko".
Ka taea e nga āhuatanga hinengaro te whakarerekē i ngā tūnga ōkiko me te huringa.
E whakaaetia ana te takirua āpiti hei anga whakahua ariā o Madhyamaka Buddhism.
Ki te whakakāhore i te noho motuhake o ngā āhuatanga tūturu katoa e hangāia ana i te ao o o tātou wheako, ka mawehe atu te tirohanga Madhyamaka i te ngākau takirua o ngā Descartes me te whakapono taonga—arā, ko te tinanatanga—he āhuatanga o te pūtaiao o nāianei.
He pono, ko te āhuatanga kikokiko, ko te ariā rānei ko te take anake o te ao rangirua, ka whakakāhoretia māramatia e Te Puta.
Ahakoa he tini, he tauwāhi, he tere, he hanga, he rahi, me te maha atu o ētahi atu huanga ā-tinana, ehara ēnei i te āhua o te tītohunga o te āhua o te āhua o te hinengaro.
Ko te tino rerekētanga o te āhua o te ao, ko te tau tūturu o nga āhuatanga whakaaro ki te rāwhiti, neke atu i te rua tekau mā rua tau.
E kī ana te āhuatanga ā-tinana anake ko te rawa tīariari anake te tinana, i tētahi āhuatanga o tērā kupu e whakamāramatia ana e tātau pūtaiao tino pai.
Ahakoa ko te tino maarahi, penei i a George Berkeley, kaore i te kitea i roto i nga tikanga o te ao Hauauru, he momo mohio ake e kiia ana ko te panpsychism, e ai ki nga wheako hinengaro me nga taonga kei te tuapapa o te wheako tinana me nga taonga, i awhinahia e etahi tangata whakaaro penei. ko Alfred North Whitehead me David Ray Griffin.
Ko te tuatoru tērā pea, ko te whakaae atu ki te putanga o tētahi rawa taketake, ehara i te kikokiko, i te hinengaro rānei.
E kore ngā pūrongo āhuatanga i runga i te oranga hinengaro ā-roto o tētahi tangata e whakaaetia kia tūpato te whakamātautau mō te tika, ā, kāore e taea te whakamahi hei hanga i ngā ahuwhānui matapae.
He whakarara ki ēnei whanaketanga i roto i te hinengaro, i hangarautia ai tētahi whanonga hinengaro (i ētahi wā e kiia ana ko te whanonga arorau)
I whakaaro ēnei tohutohu, mēnā he mea rawa te hinengaro, engari ehara i te āhuatanga, tērā pea he ōrite ngā kōrero hinengaro ki nga tūnga o roto o te roro.
E ai ki ngā kaupapa tuakiri, ka tūhono te āhua o tētahi roro ki te āhua hinengaro kotahi anake o te tangata, kāore he tikanga kia noho he pānga tūturu i waenganui i ngā momo tūnga hinengaro me ngā momo āhua o te hinengaro.
Ka mutu, ko te whakaaro o Wittgenstein mo te tikanga hei whakamahi i puta ake ai te putanga o te mahi hei kaupapa tikanga, na Wilfrid Sellars me Gilbert Harman i whakawhanake.
Nā reira, ka puta mai te pātai mēnā kaore tonu e whakaiti ana te ā-tinana.
Kei te whakamahi a Davidson i te tuhinga roa o te tino maaramatanga: ko nga hinengaro kei te tirotiro i nga ahuatanga a-tinana, engari kaore e taea te heke. "
I te wā kotahi ki tētahi wā ka haere te roro ki tētahi atu; Ko te āhua nei he tuakiri to te roro i roto i te wā.
Ko te tairitenga o te tangata, ko "Ahau" rānei te mura o te rama.
Ka whakaaturia e te mura tētahi momo hononga tika i te mea kaore te rama e puta atu i te wā e tahuna ana, engari kāore he tuakiri o te mura mai i te wā kotahi ki tētahi atu wā.
Waihoki, he whakaaro koia anō te tangata kotahi e haere ana i roto i te karaehe i te ata nei.
He ōrite tēnei ki nga āhuatanga ōkiko o te roro e puta ake ana ki te āhua o te hinengaro.
I ētahi wā ka whakataratia e nga Whenua Karakia te tūpāpaku o ētahi atu ariā pōhēhē, me nga akoranga whai tikanga kua puta ake i te wā o te hītori.
E tautohe ana ētahi tohunga kōrero mō tēnei nā te mea he takarepa ā-ariā.
Ko te tikanga kia whakaae noatia ka taea te whakaahua i ngā wheako tangata i runga i ngā āhuatanga rerekē - hei tauira, i roto i te hinengaro me te kupu koiora.
Ko te roro anake te horopaki hē mo te whakamahinga o te kupu hinengaro— ko te rapunga ki ngā āhuatanga hinengaro o te roro, koia he hapa kāwai, he āhua take rānei.
He āhuatanga hoki no te āhua o te hinengaro he āhua tōna āhua āhuatanga ātaahua, arā, he mamae tōna, e mamae ana.
Kaore e taea e te putanga o nga mahi rorohiko, a rātau anō, te whakamārama he aha rātau i arahuria ai e ēnei wheako kounga e rite ana.
Ko tēnei e whai mai ana i tētahi whakaaro e taea ai te whakaiti i nga whakamāramatanga.
I whakaheehia e te tohunga o Tiamana o te rautau 20, a Martin Heidegger, nga whakaaro ontological e tautoko ana i taua tauira whakaheke, me te kii kaore e taea te mohio ki nga wheako i roto i enei korero.
Ko tēnei raruraru o te whakamārama i ngā āhuatanga o te tangata tuatahi o ngā tūnga hinengaro me te hinengaro i te ahuwhānui mō te tangata tuatoru e kiia ana ko te pūtaiao ine nui, ko te āputa whakamārama.
E rua ngā kāwai motuhake e pā ana, ā, kāore e taea te whakaiti i tētahi ki tētahi.
Mō Nagel, kāore anō kia taea e te pūtaiao te whakamārama i ngā wheako kaupapa, nā te mea kāore anō kia tae ki te taumata, te momo mātauranga rānei e hiahiatia ana.
Ko te tikanga o tēnei āhuatanga o ngā tūnga hinengaro kia whai ihirangi rātou me ngā tohutoro tohutohu, ā, nō reira ka taea te tautapa i ngā uara pono.
He pono, he hē rānei ngā whakaaro hinengaro, whakawā rānei, nā reira ka pēhea te āhua o te hinengaro hei tukanga tūturu?
Ki te pono te mea, ka pono te ariā; ki te kore, he hē.
I te mea e pātahi ana ngā tukanga hinengaro ki ngā tukanga ā-tinana, ko nga whakaahuatanga e whai ana te āhuatanga o te hinengaro tūturu o te tangata ki te mahi nui i roto i te whakaaro hinengaro.
I roto i te āpure neuroepure, he maha ngā aronga iti e pā ana ki te pātahitanga i waenganui i ngā tūnga hinengaro me ngā tukanga ā-hinengaro: E torotoro ana te pānga o te pūtaitai pūoko i waenganui i ngā tukanga o te whakaaro me te whakahauhau.
Hei whakaotinga, ka whakamātauria e te koiora i te take me te whanaketanga o te pūnaha āwangawanga tangata, ā, koia anō tēnei te take o te hinengaro, e whakaahua ana hoki i te whanaketanga ā-hinengaro me te rongoā whakaaro o te tīmata mai i ō rātou wāhanga o mua.
Ko te tauira ngāwari he whakarea.
Kua uru atu tēnei pātai ki te aronga o te taupatupatu nui, he whakamatautau i te papa o te mōhiohio kaihopu (AI).
Ko te tūnga o AI kaha, i tua atu, he rorohiko e māharahara ana e rite ana ki te tangata.
He maha ngā whakahētanga i whiwhi ai te whakamātautau Turing, tērā pea ko te rūma o Hainamana te whakamātautau i whakaarotia e Te Moana.
E torotoro ana te hinengaro ki nga ture e here ana i ēnei tūnga hinengaro ki a rāua anō, ki ngā tāurunga me ngā huaputa ki te rauropi tangata.
E kī ana te ture o te mātau hinengaro o nga puka ko nga mea e neke ana ki te aronga kotahi e mōhiotia ana e pātahi ana ki tētahi.
Kei roto ko ngā rangahau mō te mōhiohio me te whanonga, i te arotahi ki te āhua o te whakaaturanga o ngā mōhiohio, te tukatuka, te panoni hoki (i roto i ngā whāinga pēnei i te whakaaro, te reo, te pūmahara, te whakaaro me te āhuatanga) i roto i ngā pūnaha āmai (tangata, kararehe kē rānei) me ngā mihini (hei tauira).
Ahakoa rā, he rerekē te mahi a Hegeli i te āhua o te whakaaro hinengaro o Uērā-Amerikana.
Ko te āhua o te hinengaro tangata, he tohuwāhi nā Edmund Huerl, e arotahi ana ki ngā ihirangi o te hinengaro tangata, ā, he pēhea te hanga a ngā tukanga i o tātau wheako.
Ko te take tēnei mo nga kaitauira take.
Ko ētahi e whakaaro ana ki tēnei hipanga: e kore e taea e te tangata te whakatau e rātau anō te mea e hiahia ana rātau, me ā rātou mahi.
"Nā rātou e whāngai ana i tēnei tūnga i huatau ko te pātai ""E wātea ana?"""
Ehara i te mea tika kia tohu i te wāteatanga i runga i te rangirua.
Ko Te tino hototahi i roto i te hītori o nga whakaaro nui ko David Hume.
Ko ēnei kaitohutohu e whakaū ana i te ara o te ao, a) kāore e tino whakatauria e te ture tūturu i reira ka haukotia te ture māori e te āheitanga tūturu, e) e whakatauria ana e te ture noa iho, i) i whakatauria e te ture tūturu, e whakatauria ana e te ture noa iho, e hāngai ana ki te pūkenga ā-tinana ranei.
E tautohetohe ana rātau me pēnei: ki te kore ta tātau hiahia e whakatauria e tētahi mea, ko tātau e hiahia ana ki nga mea e hiahiatia ana e te mea ma.
Ko te ariā mo tētahi tangata hai karihi tino ātaahua, kai roto i te ariā o te wairua kōwhenua.
Ko Mantranga, te tino kaiwhakahaere o enei kawanatanga, ko te Kingi, te Pirimia, te Tumuaki o te ope taua, te Tohunga Nui o te Kingi.
Ka homai e te Arthashastra he kōrero mo te tikanga tōrangapū mo te rangatira whakaaro nui, he tikanga mo nga take o waho me nga pakanga, te pūnaha o te tūnga tūtei, te matatū me te maunga o te mahi o te āhua o te whenua.
Ko nga rapunga whakaaro nui i roto i te wa, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism me Taoism, he ahuatanga torangapu to raatau kura kaupapa.
I taunakitia e te ture tētahi kāwanatanga tino whakawhanake, i runga anō i nga whiunga me nga ture pākona.
I nga wa o mua, heoi anō, i whakamanamanatia te tirohanga "tawhito" a te Asharite o te Islama.
Heoi, ki nga whakaaro o te Hauauru, e kiia ana he waahi motuhake na nga tohunga nui o Ihirama: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) me Ibn Rushd (Averroes).
Hei tauira, ko nga whakaaro o te Khawarij i nga tau timatanga o te hitori o Islam i runga i a Khilafat me Ummah, a ko te Shia Islam ranei i runga i te kaupapa o Imamah e kiia ana he tohu mo te whakaaro toorangapu.
I puawai te Aristotelianism i te wa i puta ai te Islamic Golden Age ki te haere tonu o nga tohungatanga peripietic i whakatinana i nga whakaaro o Aristotle i roto i te ao Islamic.
Ko etahi atu o nga tohunga toorangapuu o taua wa ko Nizam al-Mulk, he tohunga no Pahia me te kaiwhakaari o te Emepaea o Seljuq nana i tito te Siyasatnama, te "Pukapuka Kaawana" "i te reo Ingarihi."
Akene ko te tohunga nui o nga mahi toorangapu o roto i a Europi i te wa tawhito ko St. Thomas Aquinas i awhina i nga mahi a Aristotle, i tukuna noa atu ki nga Katorika Pakeha na roto i a Spain, me nga korero a Averroes.
Ko etahi, penei i a Nicole Oresme i tana Livre de Politiques, i whakakahore i tenei mana ki te turaki i tetahi rangatira he.
Ko taua mahi, tae atu ki The Discourses, he tirohanga uaua ki nga mea o mua, he nui tonu te whakaawe i nga whakaaro tōrangapū o nāianei i te Uru.
Ahakoa te wā, ka tāpae mai a Machiavelli i tētahi tirohanga whakawhitiwhiti, ahakoa he aha te āhua o te tōrangapū, ma te pai me te kino e whakamahia noatia ana hei whakamutu — i.e., te tango me te tautiakitanga o te kaha pūmau.
E rua nga pātai taketake i whakahaeretia ai ēnei kaitito: kotahi, na te tika, te hiahia rānei o te tangata i whakatau korero ai; a, he aha te āhua tino pai mo te kāwanatanga.
E tohutoro ana te kupu ""kāwanatanga", ki tētahi rōpū tūturu o ngā tāngata i noho i nga rōpū o te kāwanatanga, me te waihanga i ngā ture me ngā tikanga e herea ai te iwi i roto i a rātau anō."
Ka mōhiotia hoki he ariā mākete e pā ana ki te hokohoko aowhānui.
Ko te kaiwhakawāwā kōrero tino kōrero o te whare karakia i Wīwī ko François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, he kaihoko māngai o te whakamāramatanga.
"Ko taku whakahaweatanga kotahi i te matenga, e kore e taea e ahau te āwhina i a koe i roto i tēnei umanga rangatira, te mea tino pai me te tino whai whakaaro e taea e te hinengaro tangata te whakamārama atu."""
Ka tū a Maukati ki te whakakāhore i te hanga a Tā Robert Filmerrt i runga i te kaupapa tōrangapū e manakohia ana e tētahi pūnaha tūturu i runga anō i te āhua o tētahi pūnaha i tukuna.
Kaore i rite ki te whakaaro rangatira a Aquinas mo te whakaoranga o te wairua mai i te hara taketake, e whakapono ana a Locke ka uru mai te hinengaro o te tangata ki tenei ao ko te tabula rasa.
Ahakoa e māharahara ana tētahi ki ngā rāhuitanga mo te wāteatanga e nga ariki rangatira, e nga ariki tūturu rānei, ko te māharahara tūturu mehemea ka kore ngā rangatira e kore e taea e te kōtiro, ka whakahaere rātau i runga i ā rātou ake painga, ehara i te painga o te hunga e whakahaeretia ana e rātau.
Ko te tika he whakauru ki nga mahi tika rawa atu—arā, ko ngā mahi e hāngai ana ki ngā mana.
Ka whakamahia e ia, I Te Liberty ki te korero mo te tauritetanga o te ira tangata i roto i te hapori.
Ko te Liberty o nga Kaumātua he mea whai wāhi ki a Liberty ā-wāhi, nāna i hoatu te mana ki ngā iwi kia whakaawe hāngai ki ngā tōrangapū mā roto i ngā tautohetohe me ngā pōti i roto i te huihuinga tūmatanui.
I whakawhāititia hoki te Liberty tahito ki nga rōpū iti, pōrangi hoki, e taea ai te huihui ngātahi i te iwi ki te wāhi kotahi ki te whakakā i nga take ā iwi.
Heoi anō, ka whiriwhiria e nga kaipōti he māngai ki te Pāremata mō te iwi, ā, ka whakaorangia e rātau he tangata whenua i nga take o te whakauru tōrangapū i ia rā.
I Levithan, ka whakatakotoria e Hobbes tana akoranga mo te turanga o nga whenua, o nga kāhui whai mana, a, ka hanga i te mātauranga tūturu o te āhua o te tikanga.
I tērā wā, ka whai mana ia tangata, he raihana rānei ki ngā mea katoa o te ao.
I whakaputaina i te tau kotahi mano e 1762, ka noho tērā tētahi o ngā mahi whakaaro nui rawa o te whakaaro tōrangapū i roto i te tikanga ki te Uru.
"Ko te hunga e whakaaro ana ko ratou nei ko nga rangatira o ratou he pono nui atu i a ratou."""
Na te hurihanga mahi i puta ai he hurihanga whakarara i roto i nga whakaaro tōrangapū.
I te waenganui o te rau tau-19, ka hangaia a Marxism, a, i te nuinga o te wā, i nui ake te tautoko i te wāhi mahi taone.
Kaore i rite ki a Marx i whakapono ki nga taonga o mua, i whakapono a Hegel ki te Phenomenology of Spirit.
I roto i te ao Anglo-Amerika, i tiimata te whiwhi anti-imperialism me te pluralism i te timatanga o te rautau 20.
Koinei te wa o Jean-Paul Sartre me Louis Althusser, me nga wikitoria a Mao Zedong i Haina me Fidel Castro i Cuba, me nga kaupapa o Mei 1968, i kaha ake ai te aro ki nga kaupapa whakahoahoa, ina koa ko te Maui Hou.
He take nui te whakawhanaungatanga me te whakahāwea iwi.
Ko te pikinga ake o te wahine, ko ngā nekehanga hāpori o te LGBT hei te mutunga o te ture koroniara, me te whakakorenga o te hunga tо̄rangapū pēnei i ngā Amerikana o Awherika me ngā tangata moepuku i roto i te ao whanake, kua nui ake te whakaaro o te wahine, o muri mai, o te tangata, me te ahurea maha.
I whakamahia e ngā rawls tētahi whakamātau whakaaro, te tūnga taketake, e kōwhiritia ai e nga rōpū māngai nga tikanga o te tika mo te hanganga taketake o te iwi i muri i te arai kūare.
I tenei wa i te putanga ake o nga matatika wetereo i te whakaaro Anglo-American, i Uropi, he maha nga raarangi o te rapunga whakaaro kua whakahaua ki te whakaheinga o nga hapori o mua i ara ake i waenga i nga 1950s me 1980s.
I runga i ētahi rārangi rerekē, he tokomaha o ētahi atu pūtiro ā-whenua-kawe tonutia e Marxism- ka hoatu he mīmēra hou ki runga i te hanganga me te "hoki ki Hegel."
I ara mai tētahi taupatupatu ano, i ngā whakahēnga (motuhake) o ngā kaupapa ā-tōrangapū i hangaia e Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel rātou ko Charles Taylor.
Ka āhua tautoko nga herehere i te mana paetata nui ake me ngā kaupapahere o te ohaoha, pāpori hoki e whakahau ana i te tupunga o te pūmatua pāpori.
Ko te āhuatanga tōrangapū e puta ake ana ki te mutunga o te rau tau 20, he ā-iwi rānei, he tākeke ā-iwi rānei) me te whakatata mai.
Ki te tangata whenua pirihi te tūnga kahore he kahunga, ahakoa he pēhea te whakahaere i taua kahunga.
Ko te huarahi āheinga me te āhuatanga ā-iwi he kōwhiringa hai mea me rauemi.
Ko nga kaupapa e mōhiotia ana ko te tangata he kararehe pāpori, ā, i tīari te āhua o te kāwanatanga o te taone Kariki Onamata ki te kawe mai i te ora pai e tika ana ki aua kararehe.
Ko Burk tētahi o nga kaitautoko tino nui o te Angaanga o Amerika.
Ko Chomsky tetahi e whakahee ana i nga kaupapa here a U.S., neoliberalism me te kaporeihana o te ao hou, te pakanga Israeli-Palestinian, me te hunga papaho korero.
William E. Connolly: I awhina i te whakauru i nga kaupapa o muri mai ki roto i nga kaupapa toorangapu, me te whakatairanga i nga kaupapa hou o te Pluralism me te manapori agonistic.
Thomas Hill Green: He tangata whai whakaaro i nga wa katoa me nga kaitautoko wawe mo te herekore pai.
I tino ākiatia ana mahi o mua e te Kura o Frankfurt.
I taunakitia e ia te pūmatua mākete wātea i reira ko te mahi matua o te āhua ko te pupuri i te ture, ā, kia tupu noa te ōta.
David Hume: I whakaheehia e Hume te kaupapa kirimana hapori a John Locke me etahi atu i runga i nga korero tuku iho mo etahi kirimana tuturu.
Ko te tino rongonui mō te Whakaputanga o te Hononga o Amerika mo te Rangatiratanga o Tūturu.
I tautohe, e hiahiatia ana he whakahaere ao whānui hai tiaki i te rangimārie o te ao.
I haere atu a ia i Hobbes i roto i tērā, i runga i te whakaaro o tētahi iwi, i ahu mai i ngā uara tūturu i ahu mai i te mana kāwanatanga, ā, e tino tiritiri ana, ka tautohe mō tētahi kāwanatanga e whai hiko ana, he mea whāiti ki te parenga o te rawa whaiaro.
Ko tetahi o nga kaihanga o Western Marxism.
I hōmai he pūkete kāwanatanga i roto i tētahi tirohanga tūturu, kaua e whakawhirinaki ki te āhuatanga.
I whakapono a ia ki te kaupapa ā-ariā tōrangapū i te wehenga mana, ā, i tonoa he huinga tohutohu taki me ngā toenga whānui e hiahiatia ana hei pare i ngā mana o tētahi tangata i te noho whenua o te nuinga.
I whakauruhia te kaupapa o te "whakakahoretanga repressive" ", e taea ai e te whakahaere hapori te mahi ehara i te mea ma te whakahaere tika, engari ma te raweke o te hiahia."
I waihangatia te ariā o te ariā ā i runga i te āhua o ngā whakapono (pono, hē rānei) e hanga me te whakahaere i ngā mahi pāpori.
Mencius: Ko tētahi o ngā kaiwhaiwāhi tino nui i te kura o Confucian, ko ia te tautohe tuatahi hai tautohe whai mārama mo te tautāwhitanga a nga rangatira ki te rūpahu.
Montesquieu: Kua tātaritia te parenga o te iwi mā te paunatanga o nga mana"" i roto i ngā wehenga o te kāwanatanga."
Kua tautohetohetia e ana kaiwhakamaori te ihirangi o ana whakaaro tōrangapū.
Plato: He roa nga korero i tuhia e ia mo te kaupapa a te Ropu Porowha, e toru nga waahanga e tika ana kia wehea.
Ayn Rand: Ko te Kaihanga o te Whaiwhai me te tino kaikiri i te kaupapa Objectivist me Libertarian i te waenganui o te rau tau rua tekau ma rima o Amerika.
Ko te tikanga kia wehea atu te kāwanatanga i te mātauranga, kia rite tonu te whakawehe i a ia i te whakapono.
"Adam Smith: He maha nga mea i meatia kia hanga i nga tikanga ohaoha o tona wā; i whakamāramatia te āhua o ngā painga o te ohaoha i te whanonga aronga-whaiaro (te ringa arikore") o ngā kaimahi me ngā kaihokohoko."
Socrates: I whakaaro whānuitia te pūtake o te whakaaro tōrangapū ki te Uru, mā tōna āhuatanga i kōrerotia ki nga hoa o Atena; No te mea kaore anō a Sokōpa kia tuhituhi i tētahi mea, ko te nuinga o nga mea e mōhio ana mātau mōna, ko ana akoranga e puta mai ana na tana tauira rongonui, ko Pero.
Max Stirner: Ko te kaiwhakaaro hira i roto i te whakapāngia, me te māngai matua o te auhuru e mōhiotia ana he tohetohe takitahi.
Ko ētahi atu āhuatanga whakaaro ā iwi ko te whakaaro tōrangapū me te āhua o te āta whakaaro tōrangapū, e tino māharahara ana ki nga rōpū o te kāwanatanga me te kāwanatanga me a rātau mahi.
Ko te rapunga whakaaro o mua o te Socratic, e mohiotia ana ko te rapunga whakaaro Kariki moata, ko te rapunga whakaaro Kariki onamata i mua o Socrates.
Kua tata ngaro katoa a rātau mahi me a rātau tuhinga.
I tiimata te rapunga whakaaro o mua-Socratic i te rautau 6 BCE me nga Milesiana e toru: Thales, Anaximander, me Anaximenes.
E mōhiotia ana a Xenophanes mo tana whakawāwā mo te whārikitanga o nga atua.
Ko te kura Eleatic (Parmenides, Zeno o Elea, me Melissus) i whai i te rautau 5 BCE.
I whakaatu a Anaxagoras me Empedocles i nga korero maha mo te hanganga o te ao.
I whakamahia tuatahitia e te kaipōnoho Tiamana o J.A. Eberhard hei "vorsokratische Philosophie''' i te tōmuritanga o te rau tau 18.
Ko nga kupu ka pa mai, no te mea he maha nga mea o mua o te Socratics e tino hiahia ana ki nga tikanga me pehea te noho i te ao pai.
Hei ki ta James Warren, ko te rereketanga i waenga i nga tohunga maatauranga o mua o te Socratic me nga tohunga o mua o te wa puoro kaore i tino whakaatuhia e Socrates, engari na te matawhenua me nga tuhinga i ora.
Ko te Kairangahau a André Laks e wehewehe ana i nga tikanga tuku iho e rua mo te wehe i nga Socratics o mua mai i a Socratics, mai i te wa puoro me te rere i nga waa o tenei wa.
Ko te nuinga o nga mahi e tapaina ana ko Peri Physeos, ko On Nature ranei, he taitara i kiia i muri mai e etahi atu kaituhi.
Ko te tāpiritanga atu i te uaua kē atu ki tō rātou whakamārama ko te reo ngaro i whakamahia e rātou.
Ko Theophrastus, te tangata whai muri i a Aristotle, i tuhi te pukapuka encyclopedic Opinion of the Physicists ko te pukapuka paerewa e pa ana ki nga Socratics o mua i nga wa onamata.
Ināianei ka whakamahia e ngā tohunga tēnei pukapuka hei tohutoro i ngā kongakonga mā te whakamahi i tētahi aronui waeherenga e kīa nei ko Diels–Kranz tataunga.
Ā muri i tēnā he waehere e pā ana ki te mea he whakaaturanga te kongakonga, i whakawaeheretia hei A", he ""B"rānei" mēnā he whakahua hāngai mai i te tohutohu."
Ko te wa o mua o te Socratic i rua tau pea, i te wa e toro atu ana te Emepaea Perehana Achaemenid ki te hauauru, i te mea e anga whakamua ana nga Kariki ki nga huarahi hokohoko me te moana, tae atu ki Kaiperu me Hiria.
I tutu nga Kariki i te 499 BCE, engari i te mutunga i hinga i te 494 BCE.
He maha nga waahanga i uru ki te whanautanga o te rapunga whakaaro o te Socratic i Kariki Tawhito.
Ko tētahi atu āhuatanga ko te ngāwari me te auautanga o te haerenga intra-Kariki, i ahu mai ki te whakahanumi me te whakataurite i ngā whakaaro.
Na te pūnaha tōrangapū ā ihupuku i āwhina ki te pikinga o te whakaaro.
Ko nga whakaaro o nga tohutohu, i āhua rite tonu, he whakautu ki ngā pātai i puta noa i roto i te mahi a Homer me Hesiod.
Ko ratou te hunga i mua o mua o te Socratics mai i te mea e whai ana ratou ki te whakatutuki i te takenga mai o te ao me te whakariterite i nga korero tuku iho me nga korero o mua.
Ko nga tohunga nui o mua o te Socratic i haereere ano hoki ki etahi atu whenua, ko te tikanga i puta te whakaaro i mua o te Socratic i nga whenua o waho tae atu ki nga mahi o te ao.
Ko nga maatauranga o mua o te Socratic i whakaatu i te whakaaro he kotahi te whakamaarama hei whakamaarama i te maatauranga me te mana o te katoa - ana ko taua whakamaaramatanga ehara i te mahi totika a nga atua.
He tokomaha nga mea i rapu i nga tikanga rawa (arche), me te tikanga o to rātau take me te ngaronga.
I roto i ta rātau āheinga kia mārama ki nga kōnoho, i hangaia e rātau ngā whakaritenga me ngā ariā hou pēnei i te rangi, te rangirua, te whakatā, te whakaititanga, te whakatinanatanga o te āhua me ētahi atu.
Ko te tikanga pea, ko te tīmatanga, te taketake rānei me te kauruku, he pānga ki ngā mea hei whai ake.
Tērā pea nā te kore o ngā taputapu, nā tētahi āhuatanga rānei te tirotiro i te ao hei kotahitanga, kāore i te mātakina, nā reira e kore e taea e te whatu o waho te mātaki i ngā hautanga iti o te āhua i raro i te mana whakamātautau.
Ko te pūnaha i te mea i ngana rātau ki te whakawhānui i a rātau kitenga.
Ko nga Socratics o mua ehara i te hunga whakapono kore; heoi, i whakaitihia te kaha o te uru mai o nga atua ki nga ahuatanga o te taiao penei i te whatitiri, te whakakore rawa atu ranei i nga atua mai i te ao taiao.
Ko te kaupapa tuatahi o te rapunga whakaaro o mua o te Socratic, te nuinga o nga Milesians, Xenophanes, me Heraclitus, i paopao ki te whakakore i nga cosmogony tuku iho me te tarai ki te whakamarama i te taiao e ahu mai ana i nga kitenga me nga whakamaoritanga.
Ko nga Ingarihi hoki he rūpahu (e whakapono ana he mea kotahi anake kei konei, ā, ko ētahi atu mea, he whakarerekē noa iho).
I whakaarotia ia ko ia te tino kaipōnoho ki te uru, mai i a ia te tuatahi e whakamahi ana i te take, hei whakamahi i te whakatika, hei whakawhānui.
Tērā pea no nga tīmua pūhoenicā a tāne.
Ahakoa rā, ko ngā tāhae, he āhuahanga arā atu anō me tana whakaaro whakawhāiti ki te whānuitanga o te ao whānui.
I toro a Tāhae i Ōrihi, i te maha o ngā Kariki i reira, i te wāhi i pupuritia ai ngā pūkete torangatahi, ā, ka whakamahia ngā kitenga torangatahi mō ngā mea whaitake (ko te kotinga hinu).
I kiia e ia he taketakenga o te ao he mea wairua kaua he tangata no te Atua.
He mema a ia no te rangatiratanga o Miletus, he rangatira, he tangata whenua.
Hei urupare ki a Telesa, i whakaritea e ia hei tino pono, he taonga mutungakore, kahore he painga, kahore he painga, he mea wehewehe, he wera, he mātao, he mātao, he maroke.
E mōhiotia ana hoki a ia mo te tohetohe mo te take o te tāne.
I tuhia hoki e ia he pukapuka mo te āhua o te porohira.
He kaitito āta haere a ia, he mātauranga, he mātauranga hinengaro mātāmua.
I mea ia mehemea he kau, he hoiho, he raiona rānei, ka toia mai o rātou atua anо̄ hei kau, hei hoiho, hei raiona rānei.
I hoatu ano e Xenophanes he whakamārama āhuatanga āhua mo te tītohunga pēnei i te rā, te aniwaniwa me te ahi a St. Elmo.
Ahakoa he kino a Xenophanes mo te āheitanga o te tangata ki te tae ki te mātauranga, i whakapono hoki ia ki te kauneketanga mā roto i ngā whakaaro takenui.
I whakapuakina e Heraclitus kei te āhua o te wairua nga mea katoa o te āhua o te wairua pūrere.
Ka noho te ahi hei wai, he oneone, a, ko te tuarā atu.
I reira, e kii ana a Heraclitus kare e taea e taatau te takahi i te awa kotahi, e rua nga wa i whakaritehia e te pepeha ta panta rhei (ka rere nga mea katoa).
Ko tetahi atu kaupapa o Heraclitus ko te whakahee i tetahi e whakaata ana i tetahi ki tetahi, he kaupapa e kiia nei ko te kotahitanga o nga mea whakahee.
Ko te whakaakoranga a Heraclitus mo te kotahitanga o nga mea rereke, e kii ana ko te kotahitanga o te ao me ona tini waahanga ka mau i roto i nga taumahatanga i puta i nga taha ke.
Ko te whakaaro nui i Heraclitus he tohu, he kupu Kariki onamata me nga momo tikanga; Akene he rereke te tikanga o te kupu a Heraclitus me ia whakamahinga i roto i tana pukapuka.
Tau tekau tau i muri mai ka rere ia ki Croton ka neke ki Metapontum.
I whanakehia e raatau o raatau whakaaro, i tae ki te kereme he maha nga mea katoa, he maha te ao i hangaia, ko nga mea katoa he whakaaturanga o te tairitenga me te taatai.
I whakakotahi to rātau ara ora, i āraia rātau i nga ahuareka me nga kai katoa.
Ko etahi o nga tohunga o mua o te Socratic i tawai ki a Pythagoras mo tana whakapono ki te reincarnation.
Na te Pythagoreanism i awe nga ngaru Karaitiana i muri mai ko te Neoplatonism, me nga tikanga akoako a Plato.
Hei ki a Aristotle me Diogenes Laertius, ko Xenophanes te kaiwhakaako o Parmenides, a e tautohetia ana me kiia hoki ko Xenophanes he Eleatic.
Ko ia te tuatahi ki te whakapoke i te whenua he mea ahuareka.
He uaua te whakamaoritanga a Parmenides i te whiti, i tapaina ko On Nature or On What-is, i tino awe i te rapunga whakaaro o Kariki.
E toru nga waahanga o te whiti, ko te tohu (ara, kupu tomua), te Ara pono me te huarahi o te whakaaro.
Ko Te Ara o te Pono i tera wa, a kei tenei ra tonu, e kiia ana he mea nui ake.
Na, he whakapakoko teka nga mea katoa e kiia nei e tatou he pono, a tatou ano.
E whakaakona ana e te atua ko Kouros ki te whakamahi i tana whakaaro kia mōhio ai mēnā he tika, he hē rānei ngā kīanga, e tūraki ana i ngā pūmataara.
I haere tonu a Zeno me Melissus i nga whakaaro o Parmenides mo te ao.
I tarai a ia ki te whakamarama he aha ta maatau e whakaaro ana kei te kitea etahi momo taonga kore.
I whānau a Anaxagoras ki Ionia, engari ko ia te tohunga nui tuatahi i heke ki Athens.
Ko Anaxagoras te mea nui i pa ki a Socrates.
He rerekē nga whakamāramatanga ki tōna tikanga.
He ranunga katoa nga mea, he momo huānga, pēnei i te hau, te wai, me ētahi atu.
I whakaarotia hoki a Nous he paraka hanga o te ao nui, engari kai roto noa iho i ngā ahanoa ora.
I whakaaro nui a Anaxagoras i nga whakaaro o Milesian mo te epistemology, me te tarai ki te whakarite i tetahi whakamarama ka tika mo nga tohu taiao katoa.
Hei ki a Diogenes Laertius, i tuhia e Empedocles nga pukapuka e rua i roto i nga ahua o nga rotarota: Peri Physeos (I runga i te taiao) me nga Katharmoi (Purenga).
Kei te haere tonu ia i nga whakaaro o Anaxagoras mo nga "pakiaka" "e wha (ara, nga ahuatanga puoro), na te honohono, ka hangaia nga mea katoa i te taha o tatou."
He aronga ke ēnei tōpana e rua, ā, ma te mahi i runga i ngā āhuatanga o nga pakiaka e whā e whakakotahi ana, ka wehewehea rānei nga pakiaka e whā, ko te pokenga o nga mea katoa e tīari ana.
He tino rongonui rātau mo ta rātau karihi ahakoa he maha atu ētahi atu āpure whakaaro, pēnei i te matatika, te pāngarau, te rerehua, te tōrangapū, me te tītiki.
Ko Democritus raua ko Leucippus he hunga whakaponokore mo te pono o taatau mohio, engari i whakapono raua kei te haere tonu te nekehanga.
Ko nga ngota e neke ana i roto i te takoto kau, e tauwhiti ana ki a rātou, ka hanga hoki i te maha o te ao e noho nei tātau, i runga i te āhua mārama.
I whakamutua e te kaiwhakakē he ngota me te takakau ngā mea katoa, ehara ētahi o tātau āhuatanga i te tūturu engari he tūturu.
Ka whakaekea e rātau nga whakaaro tūturu, mai i nga atua ki te āhuatanga tūturu, ma te whakatū i te ara ki ētahi atu whakatakotoranga whakaaro me ētahi atu whakatakotoranga pēnei i te mahi, i ngā pūtaiao pāpori, i te pāngarau, me te hītori.
I whakaakona e nga kaiwhakakōrero te kōrero ā, me pēhea hoki te whakatau i nga take i nga tirohanga maha.
I tuhia e Gorgias tetahi pukapuka ko On Nature te ingoa, i whakaekehia e ia nga kaupapa a te Eleatics mo te What-is me te What-is-not.
I whakatakotoria e Antiphon he ture maori ki te ture o te taone.
I ngana ia ki te whakamārama i te momo, me te kotahitanga, o ngā ao nui.
I hoki a Diogenes o Apollonia ki te monism Milesian, engari me te whakaaro ataahua ake.
Ahakoa i honohono a Pythagoras me Empedocles i ta ratau whakaaro mohio ki to ratau mana whakaaweawe, i tarai ratau ki te ako ki te akiaki ranei i nga tupapaku ki te rapu i te pono mo te ao maori - Pythagoras na roto i te pangarau me te taatai me nga Empedocles na te whakaatu ki nga wheako.
I whakaekea e rātau nga whakaaturanga tūturu a nga atua i whakatūria e Homer rāua ko Hesiod, a, i whakatakotoria e rāua he hāhitanga pai kariki ki raro i te whakamātautau, i te tīmata i te whakarerekētanga i waenganui i te whakaaro māori me te kaupapa whakaaro.
Ka tiimata te whakaaro maaramatanga me nga tohunga o Milesia.
I whakatauhia e Xenophanes nga tikanga e toru mo te Atua: me tino pai ia, kore tahuti me te kore e rite ki te ahua o te tangata, i kaha awe ki nga whakaaro haahi o te hauauru.
I whakapuakina e Anaxagoras ko te mōhiotanga waimeha e whakaora ana i nga mea.
Ko Hippocrates (i te nuinga o te wā e kī ana hei matua rongoā) nāna i wehe - engari kāore i te tino tika – nga rohe e rua.
Ko te taiao hurihuri tonu e whakarapopototia ana e Heraclitus 'axiom panta rhei (he pararau noa nga mea katoa).
I rapu nga mua-Socratics ki te maarama ki nga momo ahuatanga o te taiao ma te whaitake, te tirohanga, me te tuku whakamarama ka kiia he putaiao, ka whanau mai te mea i puta ko te whaihua o te Hauauru.
I kii a Anaximander i te kaupapa o te tino whaitake, he tautohe whakaharahara e puta ai te kaupapa kaore he mea e puta mai i te kore noa iho.
I ahu whakamua a Xenophanes e tetahi kaupapa arohaehae mo te haahi anthropomorphic ma te whakaatu ma te whaitake kia kore e rite nga whakaahua o nga atua i roto i nga haahi rongonui a nga Kariki.
I rapu ano etahi atu o mua o te Socratics ki te whakautu i te paatai tawhito, me te tuku i nga momo whakautu, engari ko te huarahi tuatahi ki nga whakaaro putaiao kua oti ke te tango.
Ko te whakaaro rapunga whakaaro i hangaia e nga tangata o mua o te Socratics i tino awe i nga tohungatanga, kaituhi hitori me nga kaitito whakaari o muri.
I whakamere te hunga maori i a Socrates taiohi, anaanatae ana ia ki te whai i te kaupapa o te ao, engari i mimiti tana hiahia i te wa e kaha haere ana te titiro ki nga tuhinga o te epistemology, te wairua me nga tikanga, kaua ki te ao maori.
I tirotirohia e Cicero ona whakaaro mo nga mua o te Socratics i roto i tana Tusculanae Disputationes, i a ia e wehewehe ana i te ahuatanga o te whakaaro o mua-Socratic i whakaarohia mai i nga paari "o mua e hiahia ana ki nga kaupapa whaihua ake."
I korerohia e Aristotle nga Tuhinga o mua o te Socratics i te pukapuka tuatahi o te Metaphysics, hei whakauru ki tana ake kaupapa me te rapu arche.
Ko Francis Bacon, he tohunga o te rau tau 16 e mōhiotia ana mō te whakamua i te tikanga pūtaiao, tērā pea ko te tino tohunga o te wā o nāianei he tino nui te whakamahi i nga kuputuhi tōmua i roto i ana kuputuhi.
I tino mīharo a Friedrich Nietzsche ki ngā Socratics o mua, i karanga atu ia ki a rātou, ko ngā “kaihawene o te wairua" "ki te tohu i to rātou whakahē me tana hiahia kia Socrates me о̄na uri."
E ai ki tana korero, i puritia i roto i ana pukapuka maha, ko te wa o mua o te Socratic te wa whakahirahira o Kariki, i te mea e kiia ana ko te Golden Age i muri ko te tau pirau, hei ki ta Nietzsche.
Ahakoa tēnei wā – e mōhiotia ana i tōna wā tōmua hei wā o te Kōanga me te Ngahuru, me te wā o te Whawhai – i roto i tōna wā whakamutunga, i kōhukihuki i ngā whawhai maha me ngā whawhai toto, e mōhiotia ana hoki ko te Tau Koura o te whakaaro Hainamana nā te mea i hangaia ngā whakaaro me ngā whakaaro whānui, i kōrerorero noatia.
Taoism (e kiia ana ko Daoism), he rapunga whakaaro e aro nui ana ki nga Taonga e toru o te Tao: te atawhai, te whakaahuru, me te ngakau mahaki, ko te whakaaro Taoist e aro nui ana ki te taiao, te hononga i waenga i te tangata me te ao nui; te hauora me te roa o te ora; me te wu wei (te mahi na roto i te koretake).
Nā Agrarianism, nā te kura o Agrarianism rānei, i hāpai i ngā mahi ahuwhenua o te hāpori, me te mana taurite.
He pūkōrero pai nga tohutohu o tēnei kura, he kaikōrero tauwhāinga, he tohutohu toa.
Te Kura o Ngā Kōrero Pakeke", ehara nei i te kura whakaaro motuhake, engari he whakaaro i hangaia mai i ngā whakaaro katoa i kōrerorerotia e te hunga noa i te tiriti."
I kaha te Confucianism i te wa o te Han Dynasty, ko te tangata nui te whakaaro ko Dong Zhongshu, nana i whakauru te Confucianism me nga whakaaro o te Kura Zhongshu me te ariā o nga Waiata e rima.
Ina koa, i whakakāhoretia e rātou i te whakaaro o Confucius he tangata atawhai, ā, i whakaaro hoki ko ia te tino ruānuku, engari he tangata noa iho ia, he ira tangata.
I tae atu te Buddhism ki Haina i te rautau 1 AD, engari i te wa ki te Raki me te Tonga, Sui me Tang Dynasties ka nui te mana me te mihi.
Mā tēnei e ahu atu ki te uiui ki te tangata e whakaiti ana i te rerenga o te tītohunga o te tītohunga me te take o nga mea katoa.
Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.
Ko te rapunga whakaaro Kariki onamata i ara ake i te rau tau 6 BC, e tohu ana i te mutunga o nga tau o te Kariki o nga Kariki.
He maha ngā momo kaupapa, tae atu ki te mātauranga, pāngarau, pāngarau, whakaaro tōrangapū, tikanga tōrangapū, mātauranga, ararau, koiora, koiora, me ngā āhuatanga rerehua.
Ko ngā rārangi āhuatanga tūroro kore e ahu mai i ngā tohutohu Kariki tahito me Allenistic ki te whakaaro ā-Rōmana, ki te whakaaro ā-Rangiwi o Mua, o te Āhuaatua o Te Whenua Tau, ko te Rerekētanga o Ūropi me te Tau o te Whakamāramatanga.
Engari i whakaako rātau i a rātau ki te whakaaro.
I whakatenatena a Thales i te kura rapunga whakaaro o Milesia ka whai ko Anaximander, i kii ko te substratum, ko te arche ranei, kaore i te wai tetahi o nga waahanga tawhito engari he mea "mutunga kore" "" "kore mutunga" "(i te reo Kariki, te apeiron). "
E hāngai ana ki te kura o Milesian, e tū ana i tētahi huānga pūmanawa hei pūranga, i akona e Heraclitus tērā panta rhei (ka rere katoa"), te huānga tata rawa ki tēnei rere mutunga mai he ahi."
Ko te tangata, i tautohetohe ai ia, he tikanga mo te mau tonu, engari ko te mea anake e taea te whakaaro; ko te mea e kore e ahei kia neke ake, kia iti iho ranei, a e kore e taea te whāwhātanga me te whakatōtōtanga o nga Milesiana e kore e taea te whakaaro ki te Tangata; ko te tikanga kia wehe tētahi mea i te mea nekehanga (kōw.
Hei tautoko i tenei, i whakamatau te akonga a Parmenides a Zeno o Elea ki te whakamatau he koretake te kaupapa nekehanga na te mea kare he kaupapa penei.
I marohi anō hoki a Leuciena i tētahi whakakeke arorangi ki te kohikohiko, he mea hanga i runga i nga mea matua e rua: ko te wairua me te ngota.
“Ahakoa te rapunga whakaaro he mea whai i mua i a Socrates, e kii ana a Cicero" “ko te tangata tuatahi nāna i kawe i te rapunga whakaaro mai i te rangi, i whakanohoa ki ngā taone, i whakauru ki roto i ngā whānau, me te whakahau kia āta tirohia i ngā koiora me ngā tikanga, te pai me te kino. "" "
Ko te maha o nga korerorero e pa ana ki a Socrates (e korerohia ana e Plato me Xenophon) ka mutu me te kore i tutuki i te mutunga, i runga ranei i te korero pono, i whakaohohia te tautohetohe mo te tikanga o te tikanga Socratic.
I whakaakohia e Socrates kaore tetahi e hiahia ki te kino, no reira mena ka mahi tetahi i tetahi mea tino kino, me kore e hiahia, kaore ranei i te kuare; no reira, ko nga maatauranga katoa ko te matauranga.
Heoi, i āta pātata mai te tangata whenua nunui o Pericles ki tēnei akoranga hou, ki tētahi hoa hoki o Anaxagora, a, ka tūtuki ana ōna hoariri tōrangapū ki a ia mā te whakawhiwhi i te tauhohenga tūturu ki nga tohunga whakaaro; he hara te tirotiro i nga mea i runga ake i te rangi, i raro rānei i te whenua, e whakaarotia ana he kaupapa.
Heoi, ko Socrates anake te kaupapa kua kapi i raro i tenei ture, i whakawakia, i whiua kia mate i te 399 BCE (tirohia te Whakamatau a Socrates).
I tukuna e Plato a Socrates hei kaikorero nui ki a ia i roto i ana korero, i ahu mai i a ratau te putake o te Platonism (me te whanui, Neoplatonism).
Na Zeno o Citium i urutau nga tikanga o te Hinengaro ki te whakaputa i te Stoicism.
I te taha o Xenophon, ko Plato te puna korero tuatahi mo te ao me nga whakapono o Socrates, kaore hoki i te waatea ki te wehewehe i waenga i nga mea e rua.
Ahakoa pai te tohutohu a te tangata whakaaro nui ki te ture, e kore te hunga whakaaro nui e awhinatia, engari e whakawakia ana e te hunga whakaaro kahore nei he tikanga, ko te tikanga ia o te ture.
He kaupapa whakamātautau anō hoki nga kōrero a Plato, ko te mea tino rongonui ko tana ariā puka.
E whakaritea ana e ia te nuinga o te tangata ki te tangata e herea ana i roto i te ana, e titiro ana ki ngā kōruru anake i runga i nga pakitara, ā, kāore anō ōna whakaaro pono.
Mēnā ka tomo anō ēnei manuao ki roto i te ana, kāore e whakaratohia ngā tāngata i roto (e mātau tonu ana ki ngā kōruru) ki te whakapono i ngā pūrongo o tēnei 'ao o waho'.
Bertrand Russell, He Hītori o te Rapunga Whakaaro ki te Uru (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).
"E whakahē ana a ia i ngā kāwanatanga i whakaahuatia i te Whenua me ngā Ture o Plato, ā, e tohu ana i ngā ariā puka hei ""kupu wātea me ngā kupu whakarite puku."""
Ko Antisthenes i whakaaweawe i te kaha o te ngakau o Socrates, ka whakapae he whakapehapeha me te whakapehapeha a Plato.
I hangaia e Euclides o Megara, tetahi o nga akonga o Socrates.
Ko te Pyrrhonism te whakatutukitanga o te ataraxia (he ahua taurite) hei huarahi ki te whakatutuki i te eudaimonia.
I takea ōna matatika ki te whai i te manaakitanga me te whakamātau i te mamae"."
Kai te āhuahira tonu a rātau koha arorau i roto i te wā o mua.
Ko tenei wa pohehe o te Platonism onamata, mai i Arcesilaus ki Philo o Larissa, i mohiotia ko te New Academy, ahakoa ko etahi o nga kaituhi o mua i taapirihia etahi atu waahanga, penei i te Middle Academy.
Ahakoa ko te whaainga o nga Pyrrhonists ko te whakatutukitanga o te ataraxia, i muri i a Arcesilaus kaore nga Skeptics Akoranga i mau ki te ataraxia hei kaupapa matua.
I roto i te Byzantine Empire Kariki, i tiakina ngā whakaaro, i akohia, ā, kāore i roa i muri mai o te whakawhānuitanga nui o Ihirama, heoi, i whakamanahia e ngā caliphs Abbasid te kohikohi i ngā tuhinga Kariki me te utu i ngā kaiwhakamāori hei whakanui i tо̄ rātou mana.
Ko te rapunga whakaaro o te wharekarakia ko te rapunga whakaaro i puta mai i nga tau o waenganui, ko te waa mai i te hingatanga o te Emepaea o Roma o te Hauauru i te rautau 5 ki te Renaissance i te rautau 15.
Me ngā aweretanga a Avicenna me Averroes, kāore noa iho nga kaiaroaro o te whenua o mua i whakaaro noa iho ko rātou ko nga tohunga whakaaro: no te mea ko ratou, ko nga tohunga whakaaro ko nga kaituhituhi tama ahurangi o neherā pēnei i a Pero rāua ko Aristotle.
Ko tētahi o nga mea tino taupatupatu o taua wā ko te whakapono ki te take.
I te nuinga o te wā e whakaaetia ana kia tīmata ia ki te whenua o Atete (354–430) nō te puāwaitanga o te wā, ā, ko te mutunga o te whakawhāititanga ake o te akoranga i te tīmatanga o te tekau mā tahi o nga rau tau, i te tīmatanga o te wā o roto matua.
I nga wā o muri ake, ka whakamahia nga māngai hai whakangungu i nga kaiwhakahaere me nga hāhi.
I tēnei wā, kaore i mōhiotia te nuinga o nga mahi a Aristotle i te Uru.
E kiia ana ko Arakia te tino nui o nga Matua o te Hahi.
Neke atu i te mano tau, kaore he mahi rātini o te matauranga tuhituhinga, whakaaro rānei kaore i whakahua i tana tuhituhi, i whakatara rānei i tōna mana.
I noho ia hei kaunihera i te tau 510 i te rangatiratanga o nga Ostrogoth.
I tuhia e ia nga korero mo enei mahi, me te Isagoge na Porphyry (he korero mo nga waahanga).
I tēnei wā ka puta mai he maha nga tautohetohe ā-tuhinga, pēnei i te pātai mehemea na te Atua i whakarite hei whakaora, ā, ko ētahi hei whakatau hei whakatau.
He rite rānei te kaihautu ki te tinana o te Karaiti o mua?
I kitea anō e tēnei wā he arawhiti karahipa.
I muri mai, i raro i a St. Abbo o Fleury (abbot 988-1004), te Tumuaki o te kura Abbey i whakahoutia, i koa a Fleury i te rua o nga tau koura.
I kite te rau tau tōmua o te rau tau 13 i te whakamutunga o te whakaoranga o te whakaaro Kariki.
I whakakao mai nga kingi nunui o Norman i etahi tangata mohio mai i Itari me etahi atu waahanga ki o raatau kooti hei tohu mo to ratou mana.
I roto i tēnei wā, ka tīmata nga whare wānanga ki nga whare wānanga i nga tāone nunui o Uropi i roto i tēnei wā, ā, ka tīmata nga whakahau ā-kaitiaki i roto i te Karakia ki te whawhai mo te mana tōrangapū, hinengaro hoki i runga i ēnei pūtahi o te mahi whakaakoranga.
Ko nga māngai nui o te whakaaro Dominican i tēnei wā ko Albertus Magnus rāua ko Thomas Aquinas (ina noa atu), nā te kaitoi Kariki me te mātauranga Karaitiana i ako ki te whakamārama i te whakaputanga whakaaro Katorika.
I whakaaturia e Aquinas me pēhea e taea ai te whakauru i te nuinga o nga whakaaro o Arireka me te kore taka atu ki "ngā hapa" a te Kaiwaiata Averroes.
Ko te raruraru o te kino: Kua tohe nga tohutohu puhurehu ki te āhua o te kino, engari ko te raruraru me pēhea e hanga ai e te Atua kaha katoa, e mōhio ana, e atawhai ana, tētahi pūnaha o ngā mea e tīari ana te kino i te tuatahi i te wā o mua.
Heoi, no te tekau mā whā o nga rau, mai i te whā tekau mā whā o nga wā, ka whakaritea e te whakaaro pāngarau te huarahi mo te pikinga o te pūtaiao i te wa o mua o te rā.
I nga wa o mua, ko nga kaituhi penei i a Peter Abelard i tuhi korero mo nga mahi o te whakaaro tawhito (Aristotle's Category, Mo te whakamaori, me te Isagoge o Porphyry).
(I whakaorangia te kupu 'intentionality' e Franz Brentano, nāna i whakaata i te whakamahinga o te whenua o roto.
Ko te ingoa ""Renaissance philosophy"" ka whakamahia e ngā tohutohu o te hītori hinengaro ki te pānui i te whakaaro o te wā e whakahaere ana i Uropi i waenganui i te 1355 me te 1650 (ko ngā rā neke whakamua mō Ūropi waenganui, raki hoki, me ngā wāhi pērā ki Amerika Pāniora, Īnia, Hapanihi, me Haina i raro i te āhuatanga o Ūropi)."
Ko te whakaaro he kaupapa nga mahi a Aristotle ki te mōhiotanga o te whakaaro, kāore i wana i te wā o te Rehuahuatanga, i kite nei i te tinihanga o nga whakamaoritanga hou, nga kōrero, me ētahi atu tikanga o ana mahi, i te reo Rātini, i te kupu hoki.
He rite tonu ki ētahi huarahi ki ngā tautohetohe o nāianei, i āta tirotirohia nga tautohe me te kino o ētahi tūnga whiriwhiringa, whakamāoritanga rānei.
Ko Plato, e mōhiotia hāngai ana i ngā kōrerorero kotahi tekau mā rua me te haurua i roto i nga Wā o Waenganui, i mōhiotia i roto i te tini o nga whakamāoritanga Rātini i te tekau mā rima o Itari, he mea whakanui i roto i te whakamāoritanga tino nui o ana mahi katoa a Marsilio Ficino i Hanene i te tau kotahi mano 1484.
Ehara ko nga humanist Renaissance katoa i whai i tana tauira i roto i nga mea katoa, engari i whai waahi a Petrarch ki te whaanui i tana 'canon' o tana waa (ko nga peikani a nga tauiwi i kiia i mua he koretake, he morearea), he mea ano i puta i te rapunga whakaaro.
I tāuru anō hoki ētahi atu nekenekehanga o te whakaaro o neherā i te whakahiraunga.
I kaha ake te mana o tenei mahi i te Renaissance, na te mea i kii etahi o nga kaiwhakaaro he tika nga whakarōpūtanga a Tamati, a ko nga tikanga nga mea nui o te taha maamaa.
E ai ki ta tātau i kite ai, i whakapono rātau ka taea te mau mai te whakaaro i raro i te parirau o te kupu whakapae.
I te 1416–1417, ko Leonardo Bruni, te humanist rongonui o tona wa me te tiamana o Florence, i whakamaorihia ano nga Tikanga Matai a Aristotle ki roto i te reo Latina nui atu e rere ana, e wairangi ana, e mau ana hoki i te reo Latin.
Ko te whakapono taraiwa ko te tikanga kia whakawāteatia te whakaaro i ōna kupu whakaaro hangarau kia nui ake ai te tāngata e āhei ki te pānui.
Ko Desiderius Erasmus, te tangata nunui Tatimana, i whakarite i te tuhinga Kariki o Aristotle, ana ko nga kaiwhakaako i nga tikanga o nga whare wananga me kii ka mohio ratou he Kariki.
Heoi anō, no te mea kua whakaritea, he reo tuhituhi tērā o te Itari, ā, ka taea te mau te taumahatanga o te kōrero whakaaro nui, ka tīmata te nui o ngā mahi o tēnei ahunga, engari mai i te 1540 whakamua.
E mōhio ana tātau kei te pā tonu mai ngā tautohetohe mo te wāteatanga o te wira (hei tauira, i roto i nga whakawhitinga rongonui i waenganui i a Erasmus me Martin Luther), kua kaha te whākana o ngā kaiwhakamahara Pāniora ki te ariā o te rangatiratanga, he mahi nui taua kōrero i te tekau mā ono rānei, kāore rānei?).
Kaua e wareware ki a tātau he ingoa kē te nuinga o nga tohutohu o taua wā, ki te kore e whakapono, he Karaitiana, i kite nga Hōhātore me te hōpututanga Katorika i te tekau mā ono, ā, ko te whakaaro Whakahou e tino whakanuia ana ki te wā o te Pakanga Toru tekau Tau (1618–1648).
Hei whakamutunga, peera i etahi atu waa o te hitori o te whakaaro kaore e taea te whakaaro te whakaaroaro o te Renaissance ki te whakarato i tetahi mea hou, kaore hoki i haere mo nga rautau ki te whakahoki ano i nga whakatau a o mua.
Ko te whakaaro āhuatanga o nāianei i hangaia i te wā o nāianei, ā, e pātahi ana ki tōna āhuatanga.
Na te ika 17 me te 18 o nga rau tau, ka wehewehea ngā whika matua o te whakaaro hinengaro, te hinengaro, me te metaphysics, kia rua nga rōpū matua.
Ngā kaipōrihi,"" i te pūrata, i pupuri i taua mātauranga me tīmata ki te wheako pūoko."
Ko etahi atu o nga rangatira o te kaupapa toorangapuu ko Thomas Hobbes me Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Ko Kant i whakaohooho i te awangawanga o te mahi rapunga whakaaro i Tiamana i te timatanga o te rautau tekau ma iwa, i tiimata mai i te whakaaro a Tiamana.
I uru a Karl Marx ki te maatauranga o te hitori o Hegel me nga tikanga rangatira o Ingarangi, i huri i nga whakaaro o Hegel ki roto i nga momo rauemi, hei whakatakoto kaupapa mo te whanaketanga o te putaiao o te hapori.
I whakaaro a Arthur Schopenhauer ki te whakamutunga, he kore noa iho te ao, engari ko te tūpono huakore o ngā atahanga me ngā hiahia mutunga kore, ā, i tohutohu i te ātete me te kino.
Ko te whakapae a Descartes he maha noa atu nga kaupapa whai ake nei ko te kore he whai kiko, he teka ranei.
E whakamātau ana a ia ki te whakawātea i te katoa o ōna whakapono katoa, ki te whakatau me aha mēnā e mōhio ana a ia mō tētahi mea.
Mai i tēnei take ka whakahokia anō e ia tōna mōhiotanga.
Ahakoa e mōhio ana hoki te hītoritanga ki te āhuatanga o te wheako, ka rerekē rānei i te āhuatanga o te wheako mā te whakaaro e kore e taea te mārama ki ngā raraunga pūoko me te kore whakaaro ki ngā āhuatanga hītori me ngā āhuatanga ahurea e mahia ai ngā kitenga.
Nā tērā ōritetanga i te tuatahi, ko te mea tuatahi kia whakaahuatia i te pa,i kia tuku i ngā raraunga kitenga kia “kōrero mā rātou anō", me te mea e mautohe ana ngā kaitauwhainga i ēnei whakaaro.
Ki tētahi atu kupu: Me hanga te iti hai ariā me ētahi atu ariā, ā, ka taea e rātou ngātahi te whakawāteatanga hira i waenganui i ngā tikanga rerekē e whāiti ana i te pūtaiao o nāianei.
Ko te āhuatanga o te āhuatanga, ko te āhuatanga tūturu e whakaatu ana hai whakaaro āhuatanga mo te mōhiotanga ki tētahi mea tūwehe o te hinengaro.
E whakaahua ana i tētahi tukanga i unuhia ai te ariā i te mahi, ka hoatu anō ki te whakaharatau ki te hanga i te mea e kiia nei ko te mahi mātauranga.
Brian Leiter (2006) paetukutuku "Analytic" me te "Continental" Philosophy.
Ko te whakaaro āianei te wā o te hītori o te whakaaro ki te Uru tīmata i te omua o te rau tau 20 me te nui haere o te tohungatanga me te pikinga ake o te whakaaro ā-ā-nuku.
Ko Tiamana te whenua tuatahi hai whakaaro.
Tērā anō, kāore e rite ki te maha o ngā pūtaiao kua whai wāhi ki ngā pukapuka, ngā pukapuka me ngā whakaaturanga pouaka whakaata he mea whakamōhio i te pūtaiao me te whakawhitiwhiti i ngā hua hangarau o tētahi āpure pūtaiao ki te whānui o ngā whānui, he mahi na nga tohunga kōrero i toroa e te hunga whakarongo i waho o te mahinga.
Ko ia wehenga e whakaraupapa ana i tētahi hui nui ā tau.
I waenganui i ōna mahi maha, kua riro māna te mana whakahaere i ngā akoranga hо̄nore nui.
I whanuitia tenei whanaketanga me nga mahi a Gottlob Frege me Bertrand Russell i whakatuwhera i tetahi tikanga rapunga whakaaro hou e pa ana ki te wetewete i te reo ma te arorau hou (no reira te kupu "rapunga whakaaro wetereo" ")."
Ko etahi o nga tangata whakaaro nui, penei i a Richard Rorty raua ko Simon Glendinning, e kii ana ko tenei wehenga "wetewete-whenua" he mea kino ki te whiu katoa. "
Muri iho, ka rerekē nga tohutohu ā-nuku me te whenua i te hiranga me te āhuatanga a nga tohutohu o muri iho ki a rātau ake tikanga.
Ahakoa ngā rerekētanga o te āhua whakaaro o te hinengaro, whai i muri i a Kant, ko te nuinga o te mōhiotanga whenua e tino mōhio ana ki te whakaaro ā-whenua kia whakauru i ngā tohunga whakaaro whai muri i a Kant, i ngā whakaaro rānei e hira ana ki te whakaaro ā-whenua, engari ehara i te whakaaro tо̄tika.
Nā tēnei ka ahu mai te whakaaro ā whenua ki te āhua o te āhuatanga o te hītoritanga, e āhua whakaaro āta whakaaro ana ki ngā raruraru kōpae, ka taea te tātari i tuatahi i o rātou take hītori.
I ara ake nga kura nui a-iwi i waenga i te tiimata o te Common Era me te Emepaea o Gupta.
I whakarōpūtia ēnei tikanga whakamatuatanga i raro i te tapanga o te Hinitū.
Ko nga maataapuna o te Hauauru e kiia ana ko te Hinitu he mea honohono, he whakahiatotanga ranei o nga ahurea me nga tikanga a Inia, he rerekee nga putake aa kaore he kaiwhakaara kotahi.
I hangaia e ngā tohutohu Īnia i tētahi pūnaha whakaaro ā-pūnaha hātepe (pramana) me ngā arorau, me ngā kaupapa i uiuitia, pēra ki ngā āhuatanga oranga (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), ngā tikanga mōhiotanga tōtika (pūnoatanga, Pramanas), ngā pūnaha uara (ākōrero) me ētahi atu kaupapa.
Ko nga whanaungatanga o muri nei ko te whanaketanga o nga āhuatanga o Tantra me Ārepa-Rangiwi.
E whakaae ana a Nyāya ki ngā Pramana e whā, hei tikanga pono mo te whiwhi mātauranga - Pratyakṣa (tirohanga), Anumāṇa (whakapaunga), Upamāṇa (whakataurite me te tauritenga) me te Śabda (kupu, whakaaturanga o ngā tohunga pono o mua, o ēnei wā rānei).
Ki ta te rapunga whakaaro tenei i taea te ao ki te paramāṇu (ngota), e kore nei e taea te huna (anitya), kaore e taea te wehe, he momo ake te waahanga, e kiia ana ko "iti" (aṇu).
I muri mai ko Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara me Udayana me Śivāditya) i taapiri i tetahi atu waahanga abhava (kore-kore).
Na te mea i tiro rātou ki te ako-ā-tuhi me te whakamāori, i whanakehia e Mīmāṃsā i ngā ariā o te reo me te kaupapa o te reo i awe i ētahi atu kura o Inia.
Ko ngā āhuahira tuatahi o te whakaaro nui o Iain, ko te hinengaro takirua, te whakakāhore i te Atua hangarau, tūturu, whakaahua, he ao nui tonu, kāore i whānaua, he mahi tutu, he ariā mo nga whanonga maha o te pono, me te whanonga i runga anō i te wāteatanga o te wairua.
Kua karangatia hoki he tauira no te māiatanga ā taikaha mo tōna kaha, he pātahi, he matatini hoki te pono, ā, ko tōna hiahia hoki ki te whakanoho i ngā pūwāhi tirohanga katoa o nga ārohi tāwhai.
Ko nga tohutohu Cārvāka pēnei i a Brihaspati i tino whakahē ki ētahi atu kura whakaaro o taua wā.
Koinei te tikanga tuku iho whakaaro nui i Tibet me nga whenua o Ahia ki te Tonga rawhiti penei i a Sri Lanka me Burma.
I muri mai ko nga tikanga tuku iho a te Buddhist i whakawhanakehia nga hinengaro matatini e kiia nei ko 'Abhidharma'.
I uru tenei tikanga ki te mea i kiia he "hurihanga epistemological" "i roto i te rapunga whakaaro o Inia."
Ko nga kaiwhakaari nui o te ao Buddhist ko Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) me te Amerikana kua huri ko Henry Steel Olcott, ko nga tohunga Hainamana a Taixu (1890–1947) me Yin Shun (1906-2005), Zen tohunga, DT Suzuki, me te Tibetan Gendün Chöphel ( 1903–1951).
Ko te tikanga tangata ko te mātauranga pūtaiao mo te tangata, e māharahara ana ki te whanonga tangata, ki te koiora tangata, ki ngā ahurea me nga rōpū iwi, i te wā nei, i mua rānei, tae atu ki te momo tangata o mua.
E ako ana te matauranga tikanga tangata, koiora rānei, ki te whanaketanga koiora o te tangata.
Kua hangaia kētia nga tikanga tangata.
I te mutunga o te mahi pononga i France i te tau 1848, ka whakarērea te Société.
Mo ratou, ko te whakaputanga o te tuhinga a Charles Darwin mo te putake o nga momo te ahua o nga mea katoa i tiimata e ratau.
Tērā tonu te wawe hai mau atu ki roto i nga mātauranga pāpori.
Kua noho tana whakamahukitanga ināianei ko te whakaakoranga a te rōpū tangata, e whakaaro ana hei katoa, i ana taipitopito, e pā ana ki era atu āhuatanga"."
I kitea e ia te pokapū whaikōrero o te roro tangata, i kōrerotia i tēnei rā ko te rohe o Broca i muri i a ia.
I whakaputaina whakamutunga e rua nga rōrahi whakamutunga.
E whakahīhī ana a ia ko te raraunga taurite me āta noho, i kohia e te whakamātautau.
I whai mana a Waitz i waenganui i nga kaimatai pūnāro o Ingarangi.
Ko nga Mangai o te Société Wiwi i reira, ahakoa kaore a Broca.
I mua i kii a Erueti ki a ia ano he matawaka tangata; muri iho, he tohunga matakite.
Ko tetahi mea rereke ko te Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) na Rudolph Virchow i whakatuu, e mohiotia ana mo ana whakaekenga kaha ki nga evolusionists.
No ēnei umanga nga kaupapa nui.
Tuhinga ka whai mai, te whakamahinga o te matauranga anthropological me te tikanga hei whakaoti rapanga motuhake, kua tae mai; hei tauira, ko te taenga mai o nga tupapaku kua mate pea ka whakaohooho i te whakamahinga o te tohunga whaipara tangata tawhito hei hanga i te waahanga whakamutunga.
Ko tēnei i tino mōhiotia i Te Hononga o Amerika, mai i nga tautohe a Poa ki nga ariā ā iwi o te rau tau 19, i roto i te tautoko a Margaret Mead mo te ōritetanga wahine me ngā āhuatanga ā-waha, ki ngā whakahēnga o nāianei o te tukinotanga tāpiripiri me te whakatokonga o ngā tikanga maha.
I Ingarangi Nui me nga whenua o te Commonwealth, ko te tikanga Pakeha o te tikanga tangata e kaha ana ki te whakahaere.
Ko te tikanga ā iwi ko te mātauranga whakataurite i nga huarahi tāngata e mōhio ana ki te ao e karapoti ana i a rātou, a, ko te tikanga pāpori ko te akoranga mo nga whanaungatanga i waenganui i ngā tāngata me ngā rōpū.
Kāore he wehetanga pakeke, tere hoki i waenganui i a rātou, ā, ko ēnei kāwai e īnaki ana ki tētahi waeine nui.
I te nuinga o te wā e whakanohoia ana tēnei kaupapa ki te āpure pukapuka kāhui kōrero.
Ko te kitenga kaiuru tētahi o nga tikanga tūāpapa o te tikanga pāpori me te tikanga ahurea.
Ko te whakaakoranga o te whanaungatanga me te whakahaere pāpori he arotahi o te tikanga tāpore tangata, nā te mea he tangata nui te whanaungatanga.
He tirohanga nui te tirohanga a te Matawaka me te horopaki hapori.
Ka taea te whakamahi Ethnomusicology i roto i te whānuitanga o ngā momo mara, pēnei i te whakaakoranga, te ao tōrangapū, te ahurea tangata me te aha.
Mo te nuinga o te wā, ka noho tonu te tikanga o te tikanga, i arotahi ki te whakawhitiwhitinga.
I raruraru te tuatahi o ēnei rohe ki nga rōpū whakaaro tōmua pū"" e here ana ki ngā whakapono ""iwi"."
He aha te take e tino hiahia ana ērā e mahi ana ki te whakakahore i ngā hītori me ngā akoranga ka tukuna e ia?
Kai roto i te whanaungatanga e rua nga whānau rerekē o koutou.
I te nuinga o te wā e mahi ana te tikanga tangata whenua ki nga kaitohutohu mana wahine o nga tikanga kaore i te uru, ka rerekē ōna tirohanga me ōna wheako i ērā o nga kaitohutohu mā o Uropi, Amerika, me ētahi atu wāhi.
I whakawhanakehia te tikanga tangata tо̄rangapū hei ako mо̄ ngā mahi tо̄rangapu i roto i ngā hāpori kore whenua, he whanaketanga hо̄u i timata mai i ngā tau 1960, ā, e haere tonu ana: kua timata ngā tohunga tikanga tangata ki te ako i ngā wāhi hāpori "piiroiroi", ā, e tirohia ana i te noho mai o ngā tari me ngā kāwanatanga. I uru mai ngā mākete ki nga kaute matawhenua me te tātaritanga o ngā āhuatanga o te rohe.
Tērā anō, ka āta tīmata nga tikanga ki te whakatū i tētahi māharahara tāwāwā ki ngā tūnga me a rātau kaupapa (me te pātahitanga i waenganui i ngā rōpū tōrangapū ōkawa me ngā ōpū).
I ētahi wā e whakarōpūtia ana ki te tikanga pāpāhotanga, ā, i ētahi wā e whakaarotia ana he wāhanga o te ahurea rauemi.
Ko te akoranga anō o te hītori o ētahi momo rōpū iwi kāore pea i te tīariari, kāore rānei i te tīariari i tēnei rā.
Ko ngā momo tukanga pāpori i te Ao ki te Uru, i roto hoki i te "Ao Tuatoru" (ko tērā te arotahi auau o te aro atu ki nga tangata tikanga tangata) ka aro atu ki a "ngā tohunga i roto i 'ētahi atu ahurea' e tata ana ki o rātau kāinga."
He āpure whai tikanga tēnei e īnaki ana ki ētahi atu tohutohu, tae atu ki te tikanga tangata, te āhua o te hinengaro tangata, te rongoā, te mātauranga, te rongoā kino me te mātauranga kararehe.
Ko te mātauranga o te tangata o neherā, e kitea ana i roto i ngā whakaaturanga mōkai, pēnei i ngā wheua me ngā tapuwae mārire.
I te tau kotahi mano 1989, i whakatūria e tētahi rōpū tohunga pūkenga Ūropi me Amerika i te rārangi o te tikanga, te Pānga Ā Ihurangi o ngā Anongopai Pāpori (EASA) e noho ana hei whakahaere ngaio matua mo nga tangata tikanga e mahi ana i Uropi.
Ko tēnei te ariā kia kaua e whakawāteatia ngā tikanga ahurea e ngā uara, ngā tirohanga rānei a tētahi atu, engari kia āta tirotirohia mā ā rātou anō whakaritenga.
I whakahē a Franz Boas ki te whakauru a US ki te Pakanga Tuatahi o te Ao, a, i muri o te pakanga i whakaputaina e ia he whakaaturanga poto me te whakatau i te urunga mai o etahi tohunga whaipara tangata o Amerika ki te tutei i Mexico i raro i a raatau kaitaiao.
I taua wa ano, ko te mahi a David H. Price mo nga tohunga tangata a-iwi o Amerika i te wa o te Pakanga Makariri e whakaatu ana i nga korero mo te whaia me te whakakorenga o etahi kaitohutohu tangata mai i a raatau mahi mo te aroha ki nga kaimana.
He maha nga taumira e whakahē ana i te whawhai i ōna āhuatanga katoa i puta nui i nga hui ā-tau a te American Anthropological Association (A).
Ko te Association of Social Anthropologists o te UK me te Commonwealth (ASA) i kii i etahi karahipi tino kino.
Ko tētahi o ngā āhuatanga tūturu, ko te tikanga o te tikanga tangata, ko te tikanga kia nui kē atu te āhua o te āhua o te rongoā.
Ko ēnei pātahitanga hihiri, i waenganui i ngā mea e taea te mātaki i runga i te whenua, ehara i te mea e taea te kite mā te whakahiato i ngā kitenga paetata maha e noho nui tonu ana ki ngā momo tikanga, ahakoa ahurea, koiora, āhuatanga ā-papa rānei, mātauranga rānei.
I te taha koiora, ōkiko rānei, ko ngā inenga tangata, ngā tātauira iranga, ka taea te kohikohi me te whakaputa hei tuhipānui, hei kauwhata kotahi rānei.
Ko nga wehenga ahurea e pa ana ki nga momo taputapu, penei i a Olduwan, i a Mousterian, i te Levalloisian ranei, hei awhina i nga tohunga whaipara tangata me etahi atu tohunga tangata mohio ki nga tikanga nui o mua.
Ko te tikanga ahurea e whakaaetia ana te whanonga i roto i te iwi; e tau ana hei tohutohu mo te whanonga, kākahu, te reo, me te whakahāwea i roto i tētahi āhuatanga, e noho ana hei tātauira mō ngā tūmanako i roto i tētahi rōpū pāpori.
Kei roto i ēnei ko ngā momo whakahua pēnei i te toi, te puoro, te kanikani, te hāhi, me ngā hangarau pēnei i te whakamahinga utauta, te tunu, te whakaruru, me ngā kākahu.
I ētahi wā, i ētahi wā e whakamahia ana te taumata o te ahurea hai wehewehe i nga hau i nga rōpū matatini.
Ko te tikanga ahurea maha e pā ana ki ngā momo ahurea whakapāpāho maha, ā, he āhuatanga pāpāhotanga maha, i puta mai i te rau tau e 20.
I roto i ngā pūtaiao ā-iwi whānui ake, e mau ana te tirohanga ā-ariā o te āhuatanga ahurea ka puta mai te tikanga tohu tangata mai i ngā āhuatanga o te oranga tangata, i te mea ka waihangatia e te tangata nga tikanga mo te ora ōkiko, ā, kei te kitea te take o te ahurea i roto i ngā tikanga koiora rea.
I tēnei āhuatanga, ko te tikanga maha he hua o te noho rangatiratanga, me te whakaaro tahi i waenganui i nga tikanga rerekē e noho ana i te aorangi kotahi.
I te tau 1986, i tuhia e te kairangahau a Edward S. Casey, "Ko te tikanga tonu o te ahurea ko te 'wahi i ngaki' i te reo Ingarihi Waenganui, a ko taua kupu ano hoki i hoki ki te raarangi Latin, 'ki te noho, ki te manaaki, tae noa ki te karakia' me te ahurea, 'He karakia, he haahi ano tenei. "
Ko te tikanga, ko te pūrata i waenganui i te ""ahurea", me te ""hauratanga"" i roto i ēnei kaituhi, ahakoa kāore e whakapuakina pēneitia."
I puta ake tēnei kaha me te kunenga o te āhuatanga o te āhuatanga o te tangata i te 50,000 tau ki mua, ā, i ētahi wā e whakaarotia ana he ahurei ki te tangata.
Ko Rein Raud, e hanga ana i nga mahi a Umberto Eco, a Pierre Bourdieu me Jeffrey C. Alexander, kua whakaatuhia mai he tauira mo te whakarereketanga ahurea i runga i nga kereme me nga tono, e whakawakia ana e o raatau maatauranga me te whakamana kaore ranei e tautokohia e te mana tohu o te hapori ahurea e whakapaehia ana.
Ko te whakatū anō i nga tikanga ahurea ko te hanga houtanga o te ariā ahurea o te iwi.
Ka taea e te papā pāpori me te whakawhanaketanga o ngā hangarau te whakarerekē i ngā huringa i roto i tētahi iwi mā te whakarerekē i ngā toi pāpori me te whakanui i ngā tauira ahurea hōu, me te whakahohe i te hohenga hangarau.
Ka āhei hoki ngā here taiao te tāuru hei take.
Ka pā pea te pakanga, te whakataetae mo ngā rauemi ki te whanaketanga hangarau, ki ngā pāpori mātauranga rānei.
"Hei tauira, ko ngā mekameka o te wharekai me ngā pūkaha kupenga ki te Uru he whakaahua taurangi, he whakamīharo ki te Hainihi i te wā i huakina e Haina tana mahi moni ki te hokohoko ao whānui i te rau tau 20 o te rau tau. "
I tautohe a ia, ehara tēnei hinengaro i takea mai i te iti o te mātauranga, engari na te iti o te toa ki te whakaaro takitahi.
Ano hoki, i tono a Herder i tetahi momo huinga o Bildung: "Mo Herder, ko Bildung te katoa o nga wheako e whakarato ana i te tuakiri, me te tikanga mo te tutukitanga o te iwi, ki tetahi iwi." "
E ai ki tēnei kura whakaaro, he mōhiotanga ao kē tā ia rōpū iwi, ā, e kore e taea e ia rōpū te hotokore ki ngā tirohanga ao o ētahi atu rōpū.
Nāna i tono kia whakaatu mai he whakataurite pūtaiao o nga rōpū tangata katoa, ko nga tirohanga ao kē, he ōrite nga take taketake.
""he huarahi motuhake o te ora, ahakoa tētahi iwi, wā, rōpū rānei.""
"I ētahi atu kupu, ko te ariā o ""ahurea"" i hangaia ki Uropi i te wā o te 18 me te hōmua o ngā rau tau 19 e whakaata ana i ngā rerekētanga i roto i ngā rōpū Pākehā."
E ai ki tēnei āhuatanga whakaaro, ka taea e tētahi te whakarōpū ētahi whenua me ētahi iwi kia nui ake te whakawhanaunga i ētahi atu me ētahi tāngata he nui kē atu tōna tikanga i ētahi atu.
Kua whakaae ētahi atu kaiwhakawāwā o te rau tau 19, i muri i a Rousseau, i tēnei whakarerekētanga i waenganui ake i te ahurea iti, engari kua kitea te ātaahua me te hākino o te ahurea tiketike hei whanaketanga hāmate me te kore noa e mātao ana, e whakapohehe ana i te āhua o te iwi tino nui.
I te tau 1870 ka whakamahia e te tohunga tangata a Edward Tylor (1832–1917) enei whakaaro o te ahurea teitei ake ki raro ki te whakatakoto kaupapa mo te whanaketanga o nga haahi.
"Mō te kaitiaki o te kaitiaki mahi aKakaiki Simmel (1858–1918), ko te tikanga māori e pā ana ki te mahinga o ētahi tangata mā te wātea o ngā puka o waho kua whakahāngaitia i te wāhi o te hītori.""
E pā ana te ahurea kore-rawa ki ngā whakaaro ā-tinana kei ētahi tangata mō tō rātou ahurea, tae atu ki ngā uara, ngā pūnaha whakapono, ngā ture, ngā tikanga, ngā tikanga, ngā reo, ngā whakahaere, me ngā umanga, i te mea ko te ahurea tinana te tohu ōkiko o tētahi ahurea i roto i ngā ahanoa me ngā hoahoa i hangaia, i hanga rānei e rātou.
I waihangatia" te mātauranga hapori ahurea i roto i te ao kōrero Ingarihi he hua o te "tahuri āhuatanga ahurea"" o nga tau kotahi mano e 1960, nāna i ārahi atu ki te whānuitanga o ngā kaihanga me ngā toronga pānui ki te pūtaiao pāpori."
Nō nāianei kua noho te "Ahurea"" he ariā hira puta noa i ngā manga maha o te hapori pāpori, tae atu ki ngā āpure pūtaiao pēnei i te rōpū pāpori me te tātari whatunga pāpori."
I kite rātau i ngā tauira o te whakapaunga me te wātea kia whakaritea e te whanaungatanga, nāna rātau i arotahi ki ngā pānga o te karaehe me te whakaraupapatanga o te whakanao.
Mai i taua wa ka kaha te hono atu ki a Stuart Hall, nana nei a Hoggart i whakahaere.
Ko ēnei mahi he āhuatanga mahi a ngā tāngata (pēnei i te mātakitaki pouaka whakaata, te kai rānei) i roto i tētahi ahurea.
Kia mātakitaki i te pouaka whakaata kia kite i tētahi tirohanga tūmatanui ki tētahi takahanga hītori, kaua e whakaarohia hei ahurea, engari rawa mēnā e kōrero ana ki te pouaka whakaata, tērā pea i tīpakohia ahureatia; heoi anō, ko ngā tamariki kura e mātakitaki ana i te pouaka whakaata i muri i te kura me o rātau hoa kia tāuru"" tērā e tino whai wāhi ana mai i te mea kaore he take mō te whai wāhitanga o tētahi ki tēnei mahi."
Ko te "Ahurea"" mō tētahi kaipūtaitai akoranga ahurea, kāore i roto anake i te ahurea tiketike tūturu (te tikanga o ngā rōpū pāpori e whakahaere ana) me ngā ahurea e manakohia ana, engari ko ngā tikanga me ngā tikanga o ia rā."
I whakawhanakehia e ngā tohunga o Peretaania, o Ngā Whenua Tо̄pū o Amerika hoki i tahi momo rangahau rerekē e pā ana ki ngā ahurea, whai muri i ngā tau 1970.
Heoi, kua memenge te rereketanga i waenga i nga whenu o Amerika me Ingarangi.
Ko te aronga nui o te huarahi Marxist orthodox e aro nui ana ki te whakaputa tikanga.
Ko etahi atu huarahi ki nga rangahau ahurea, penei i nga rangahau ahurea wahine, me nga whanaketanga o Amerika o te mara, ka matara atu i tenei tirohanga.
Ka tīmata nga kaiākonga ahurea ki te whakamātau ki te hōpara i te pātahitanga i waenganui i ngā āhuatanga me te ahurea, me te whakautu mehemea e takitahi ana te hinengaro tangata i te ahurea.
I tērā taha, ka ngana ētahi kaiwhaiwhai ki te kimi rerekētanga i waenganui i nga āhuatanga o te tangata puta noa i nga ahurea.
Hei tauira, ko ngā tāngata e whakatipu ana i roto i tētahi ahurea e whakaakona ana ki te kāhua whakaaro motuhake.
Ko te tikanga, ko te Whakaritea o Hague mō te Parenga o te Āhuatanga Ahurea i te Takahanga Papā Rau me te Hui UNESCO mō te Parenga o te Rerenga Ahurea e pā ana ki te parenga o te ahurea.
I raro i te ture aowhānui, e ngana ana te UN me UNESCO ki te whakatatū me te whakaū i ngā ture mō tēnei.
Ko te ūnga o te kōkiri te tuakiri o te hoariri, koia ia te take i tohutohu ai nga rawa ahurea hei ūnga matua.
Ko te hui ahurei he kaupapa nui e whakanui ana e te iwi, me te whainga kia aro ki ngā āhuatanga o tērā iwi, me ōna hāhi, me ōna ahurea rānei.
I te taha o te whakapono me te āhu tangata, he taketake te āhua o te ahuwhenua.
I ētahi wā e mahi ana ngā hākari ki te whakarite i ngā take ā-iwi motuhake, i runga i te whakamaharatanga, te mihi rānei ki nga atua, ki nga atua, ki te hunga tapu rānei: e kiia ana rātou he taiopenga ā iwi.
I Te Tawhito o Greece me Roma, i āta pātata ngā hākari pērā ki te Saturnalia ki te rōpū pāpori me ngā tukanga tōrangapū, tae atu ki te hāhi whakapono.
I te reo Middle English, ko te “festival dai” he “hararei whakapono.”
Ka whakamahia hoki te kupu ""hakari"" ki te kōrero whānui noa iho o te ao hei kupu taurite mo ētahi kai nui, whāiti rānei."
Ko ngā hākari hāhi tino nui pēnei i te Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid al-Fitr me Eid al-Adha ki te tohu i te tau.
Ko tetahi tauira moata ko te taiopenga i whakatauhia e te Kuini egyptisn a Pharaoh Ramesses III e whakanui ana i tana wikitoria i nga Libyans.
He maha ngā momo hākari i te ao, a, ko te nuinga o ngā whenua e whakanui ana i ngā takahanga hira, tikanga rānei i ngā takahanga ahurea me ngā mahi ahurea noa iho.
Ko nga hākari Egyptian tahito pea he hāhi, he tōrangapū rānei.
Hei tauira, ka hākinakina e te hākari Sed, te toru tekau o nga tau o te ture a pharaoh Egypt, kātahi ko ia toru (e whā rānei ki te kotahi o nga tau) i muri iho i tērā.
I roto i te maramataka karaihe Karaitiana, e rua nga hākari matua, e mōhiotia tika ana ko te Hakari o te Whanaungatanga o to tatou Ariki (Kirihimete) me te Hākari o te Aranga (Aranga), engari ko ngā kākari iti e whakahonoretia ana e te hunga tapu ā rohe, e tata ana ki nga whenua katoa e whakaawetia ana e te Karaitiana.
Ko nga huihuinga whakapono Puta, pērā ki a Esala Perahera e tū ana ki Sri Lanka me Thailand.
Ko te whakatakinga o ētahi kiriata rerekē, ā, ko te tikanga kia whakahaeretia ia tau.
Tērā anō nga hākari inu pū, pērā ki te Kōkōkā rongonui i Germany mo te pia.
I whakawhirinaki nga Egypt tahito ki te poka waipuke tau e pā ana ki te Awa o Nile, he momo awa, nāna i whakarato he whenua mōmona mo nga kai.
Ko te hākaritanga o Dree o nga Apatanis e noho ana i te Takiwā o Lower Subansiri o Arunachal Pradesh e whakawāteatia ana i ia tau mai i te 4 o Hōngongoi ki te 7 mā te inoi mo tētahi kotinga hauwhiti pātītī.
Ko te hararei he rā whakawhāititia e te ritenga, e te ture rānei kei reira ngā ngohe pūnoa, otirā ko ngā mahi pūnoa, mahi rānei tae atu ki te kura, ka whakatārewatia, kua whakahekea rānei.
Ko te waeine e whakahekea ai ngā ngohe pūnoa mā tētahi hararei ka whakawhirinaki pea ki ngā ture paetata, nga tikanga, te momo mahi i puritia, i ngā kōwhiringa whaiaro rānei.
Ki te nuinga o ngā rōpū hōu, ko nga hararei e mahi ana ki tētahi mahi whakangahau pērā ki ētahi atu rā, ngohe rānei o te mutunga wiki.
I ētahi take, ka taea anake te mau i te hararei.
He rerekē te whakamahinga hōu.
Hei tauira, ka whakamaharatia te Rā Ngeke i te 14 o Hakihe, ka mātakina te Kōrero Ao Whānui Pēnei i te Rā o te Kaikimi i te 19 o September, ā, ka tū te Rā Kohukohu i te 30 o Mahuru.
I ia tau, ia tau ka whakamaumaharatia e ngā Kaiwhakaatu o Jehovah Ko te Whakamaharatanga o te Mate o jesus Christ", engari kaua e whakanui i ētahi atu hararei me tētahi tikanga hāhi pēnei i te Aranga, te Kirihimete, te Tau Hōu rānei."
Ko nga Ingarihi a Ahmadi he whakanui anō i te Rā o Messiah i Whakaaria Mai, i te Rā O te Kaiwhakatika Hou i Whakaaria Mai, i te Rā o Khilafat, engari e hāngai ana ki te whakapono e paingia ana, e kore hoki e kiia hei hararei.
Ko nga hararei a Celtic, Norse, me Neopagan e whai ana i te tikanga o te Huira o te Tau.
Ko ngā kaiwhaiwhai i roto i te kararehe mātauranga e whakakotahi ana i nga huinga pūkenga o te mataiora tangata, te matūropi, me te huakanga, ā, ka whakaarohia te horopaki ahurea me te kaituku o ngā toenga.
Ko te mātau hinengaro o te hinengaro ko te akoranga o nga hanganga ā-hinengaro i tētahi tirohanga atarangi hou.
Ko te mātauranga āhuatanga a te tangata ko te akoranga o ngā āhuatanga (whakahāngaitanga, whakawhanaketanga, tōkeke) mai i ngā tirohanga waiata me te akoranga rauropi (tirohia te āhua o te akoranga āhuatanga).
Ko te Paleoanthropology te rangahau i nga taunakitanga puukohu mo te whanaketanga o te tangata, te nuinga o te whakamahi i nga toenga mai o te hominin kua ngaro me etahi atu momo primate ki te whakatau i nga rereketanga morphological me te whanonga o te whakapapa tangata, me te taiao i puta ai te whanaketanga tangata.
He hou tonu te ingoa, i te mea he 'anthropology tinana' neke atu i te kotahi rau, me etahi kaimahi e whakamahi tonu ana i taua kupu.
Ko ētahi kaiwhakatika, tirohia ki raro nei, kua hōhonu ake te āpure i te pūtaiao tōtika.
I puta tēnei he pūnaha matua i whakaaro ai ngā tohutohu mo te āhua mo te 2,000 tau e whai ake nei.
I tuhituhi anō a ia mo te kōkōkā, he ariā i pā mai i nga tuhituhi i te Hippocratic Corpus.
I te rautau 19, ko nga French anthropologists tinana a French, na Paul Broca (1824-1880) i anga, i aro atu ki te kiripaka i te wa ko te tikanga Tiamana, na Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), i whakanui te kaha o te taiao me nga tahumaero ki te tinana o te tangata.
I hurihia e ia te arotahi i te āhuatanga ā-iwi ki te arotahi ki te akoranga mo te whanaketanga tangata, ka neke atu i te whakanahatanga ki te mahi iwi.
Ko te iwi he whakarōpūtanga o te tangata i runga anō i ngā painga ā-tinana, pāpori rānei e tiritiri ana ki roto i ngā kāwai i kitea nuitia e te iwi.
E whakaaro ana te pūtaiao o nāianei ki te whakataetae he hanga pāpori, he tuakiri e tautapa ana i runga anō i ngā ture i hangaia e te iwi.
Ko ētahi atu anō e tautohe ana, i waenganui i te tangata, kaore he tikanga tāke i roto i te iwi, nā te mea ko te hunga ora katoa no ērā ōrite, ko Homo ōrite ngā poipoi.
Kei Awherika ki te Tonga, ko te Ture Rēhitatanga iwi Whānui, 1950, i mōhiotia ko te Mā, te Pango, me te te hunga keretewha, nā wai rā, i tāpirihia ko nga Iniana.
I whakaarohia e te Tari Tatauranga o te United States engari ka unuhia nga mahere ki te taapiri i tetahi waahanga hou hei whakarōpū i nga iwi o Rawhiti ki te Rawhiti me nga iwi o te Raki o Awherika i te US Census 2020, mo te tautohetohe mena e kiia ana tenei wehenga he iwi ma, he iwi motuhake ranei.
Ko te whakatūnga o ngā rohenga ā-tīwae, ko te whakaraupapatanga o ngā rōpū i tautuhia hei tītaha iti iho, pēnei i te ture taka-kotahi e whakamahia ana i te rau tau 19 o Amerika ki te waiho i ngā tī tupuna ā-Awherika mai i te whakarōpū ā-iwi, kua whakaritea hei mā"."
E ai ki te tangata iranga o David Reich, ahakoa he hanga pāpori pea te tauomaoma, he rerekētanga ki ngā tupuna iranga e pā ana ki te tini o ngā hanga ā-ā-iwi o tēnei rā.""
Ko ētahi atu ahu o ngā whakarōpū ā-tīwae ko te hītori tiritiri, ngā tikanga, me te reo.
Ko nga take mātau ā-iwi, i roto i te whakakotahitanga me ngā tirohanga tōmua, engari he matatū o te iwi, i ahu mai ki te mamae nui i roto i nga rōpū ā-iwi tūpono.
Na te whakahāweatanga i nui ai nga wāhanga o te tūtukitanga, tae atu ki te kahungatanga me te kahungatanga.
Nā te mea i roto i ētahi rōpū ā iwi e ōrite ana ki ngā tauira o te rōpū pāpori, he mea nui rawa te mahi a nga kaipūtaiao pāpori ki te ako i te ōritetanga o te iwi.
Hei tauira, i te 2008, i tautohe ai a John Hartigan, Jr. mō tētahi tirohanga o te whakataetae i arotahi ai ki te ahurea, engari kaore e waiho te hāngaitanga ki te ihirangi, ngā ira rānei.
Nā tēnei i puta mai te ariā o te whakataetae i a tātau e mōhio ana i tēnei rā i te tukanga hītori o te hītori o te hītori me te raupatu, i kawea mai ai ngā European ki ngā rōpū o ngā whenua rerekē, me ngā ariā o te taunahatanga me te āhuatanga patopato i kitea i roto i ngā pūtaiao tūturu.
Nā te whakapono o ētahi hunga o te iwi, i hono ngā rerekētanga ā-tinana i waenga i ngā roopu kia riro mātauranga, me ngā āhuatanga matakita.
Ko te whakarōpūtanga o Carl Linnaeus i te tau 1735, he kaihanga i te taake taakaha, i wehe te momo tangata a Homo sapiens ki roto i nga momo whenua o te europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, me etahi atu, e hono ana ki etahi momo katakata: he tino pono, he melancholic, he choleric me te phlegmatic.
I kitea hoki e Blumenbach i te i whakawhitinga āhuatanga o tētahi rōpū ki ngā rōpū pātata, ā, i mea ake “e whakaheke ana te momo o te tāngata e mahi tika ana ki tētahi atu, ā, te taea te tohu i ngā tepega i waenganui i a rātou"."
I tautohetia anō, tērā pea ko ētahi rōpū ko te hua o te ranunga i waenganui i ngā iwi motuhake i mua, engari ka taea e taua ako āta whakaaro te wehe i ngā iwi tīmata i paheko hei whakaputa i ngā rōpū mārō.
Na nga mātauranga hōu o te ahurea me te āpure mo te tūnga o te iwi whānui, i whakararurarutia ai te tūnga pūtaiao o te tūnga ā-iwi, ma te hunga tikanga ā iwi ki te whakahou i o rātau whakaritenga mō ngā pūtake o te tāupetanga whītiki.
Ko ngā akoranga o te tāupetanga ā-ira tangata e whakaatu ana kāore te hunga tangata e pūreitia ana, ā, he iti iho ō rātou rerekētanga ki ērā kei roto i ngā pūwhakaaro ōrau.
I tuhia e Andreasen he hoahoa rākau o ngā tawhiti iranga pātahi i waenganui i ngā iwi whānui i whakaputaina e Luigi Cavalli-Sforza hei pū mo te rākau whakapakari o te iwi tangata (p. 661).
Ko te whakamutunga katoa a Marks, Templeton, me Cavalli-Sforza, kāore nga iranga e homai he whakaaturanga mo nga iwi tangata.
Hei tauira, hei whakaaro ki te tae kiri i Europe me Āfrika, ka tuhituhi a Brace: Ki tēnei rā, ko ngā kōeke tae kiri mā te tikanga tē mōhiotia mai i Europe whaka te tonga i te pito ki te rāwhiti o Mediterranean, a, whakarunga atu i te Nile ki Afrika.
I kōrero anō a ia ka taea e tētahi te whakamahi te kupu whakataetae mēnā ka wehewehe tētahi i waenganui i "ngā rerekētanga o te iwi" me te ariā o te iwi"."
Hei whakaiti, e whakaae ana a Livingstone me Dobzhansky he wehewehenga iranga kei roto i te tangata; e whakaae ana hoki rātau he take no te whakaaro o te whakataetae ki te whakarārangi i te iwi, he pēhea hoki te whakamahi i te ariā o te oma, he take mo te hui pāpori.
I kite ngā kaimātai tangata, ā, ko Leonard Lieberman rāua ko Fatimah Linda Jackson, "Ko ngā tauira koretake o te heterogeneity e kii ana i ngā korero mо̄ te taupori me te mea he о̄ritetanga matai iranga, he mea rānei kua ara mai nā ngā āhuatanga o te taiao ". "
I whakamāramatia e te kaiwhi o te rau tau-20 ko William C. Boyd te tauomaoma hei: "He tino rerekē te iwi whānui i ētahi atu iwi whānui i te auautanga o te kotahi neke atu rānei o tōna tīni.
Waihoki, kua huatau te kaitoro tangata whenua ko Stephen Molnar ko te putanga o te tautohetohe o ngā raina ki te whakanui i ngā iwi e kore e hua i te ariā anō.
I whakatūpato mai a Joanna Mountain me Neil Risch, ahakoa i tētahi rā, ka whakaaturia ngā kāhui iranga kia ōrite ki ngā rerekētanga whākōkī i waenganui i ngā rōpū, he pēnei ngā whakaaro pērā i te pātahitanga i waenganui i te tīra me ngā āhuatanga matatini ka pōhēhētia.
"Ka tōtika ngā kāwai katoa ka haere mai koe, engari kāore tērā e ārai i a koe ki te whakamahi, ki te whai whaipainga rānei."""
I pēnei e toru ngā rōpū iwi whānui e wehea ana e ngā awhe tauwāhi nui (European, Afrikan me Asia rawhiti).
I tautohetia e nga Kairangahau penei i a C. Loring Brace, nga kaitohutohu a Jonathan Kaplan me Rasmus Winther, me te kairangahau a Joseph Graves, ahakoa i kona ka taea te rapu rereketanga koiora me te ira e haangai ana ki nga roopu e kiia ana he ao whenua. reihi "", he tika tenei mo te nuinga o nga taupori motuhake o te whenua. "
Kua mātaihia a Weiss rāua ko Fullerton mēnā ka hanga tētahi tauira anake o ngā Tiorangiana, ngā Mānia me ngā Maori, e toru ngā kāhui rerekē, ā, ka taea ētahi atu iwi whānui te whakaahua he kōpiro i roto i ngā mātaitai Māori, ngā Tiorangiana me ngā Meiana.
Waihoki, ko ngā raraunga momoira e whakaraupapa ana mēnā e hiahia ana te tangata ki te kite i ngā wehenga roto (i.e., ngā wehewehenga), te tauwhāiti rānei (i.e., ngā pāpapa).
I te taha o nga raru kino me nga kaupapa ariui me te "iwi" ", whai muri i te Pakanga Tuarua o te Ao, i tino mohio nga kaiputaiao whanake me te hapori ki te whakamahi i nga whakapono mo te iwi hei whakatau i te whakahāweatanga, te wehenga iwi, te pononga me te kohurutanga."
Na Craig Venter rāua ko Francis Collins o te National Institute of Health i whakapuaki te whakamōhiotanga o te mahere o te huinga tangata i te tau 2000.
Ehara i te mea pūtaiao.
Kua tautohetohe te tangata whenua tangata ko Stephan Palmié ko te iwi ehara" i te mea engari he pānga pāpori"; i ngā kupu rānei a Katya Gibel Mevorach, "he metoni", "he mea hanga tangata, ehara i te mea ahuwhānui, e mau rānei, engari i whakamahia tonutia hei whakahaere rerekētanga.""
I reira, kaore te tuakiri ā i whakahaeretia e te ture mātātā mārō, pērā i te ture taka-tahi, pērā i te Hononga o Amerika.
Ko ēnei momo kōeke ki rō tētahi, pērā i ngā tae o te tūāwhiorangi, ā, kaore te kāwai kotahi e tūhāhā mōhiotia ana i te nuinga.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984.
I roto i te horopaki European, ka tāpaetia e te rāhuitanga hītori o "te iwi" tōna āhua hē.
E whakawhirinaki ana te ariā mo te take ā-iwi i runga i te ariā ka taea te motuhake i te tangata ki roto i ngā iwi"" motuhake koiora, he ariā i ākiritia e te iwi pūtaiao."
I roto i te United States te nuinga o nga taangata e kiia ana ko Afrika Amerika he tupuna Pakeha, engari he maha nga taangata e kiia ana he Pakeha Amerika he tupuna Aferika, Amerindian ranei.
I te mutunga o te rau tau e 19 nga paearu mo te mematanga o ēnei iwi.
E tautuhia tonu ana ngā Amerindians hei ōrautanga o te toto Īniana"" (e karangatia ana ko te whakahonotanga toto)."
Ko te tikanga o tēnei ture, ko ērā i roto i te whakataetae whāranu, engari i tautuhia he pango ētahi tīmua o Āfrikan e mōhiotia ana.
Ko te kupu "Hespanic" i puta mai he ethnonym i te rau tau 20 me te pikinga atu o te hekenga o nga kaimahi i ngā whenua kōrero Spanish o Amerika Ratini ki Te Hononga o Amerika.
E toru ngā take, ko te whenua o te mātauranga, tauwhiro, me te pakeke, i kitea he mea nui ki te whakarerekē i ngā whakautu.
I te tau 2007, i uiuitia e Ann Morning, neke atu i te 40 ngā kaimātai koiora me ngā tangata whenua tangata o Amerika, ā, i kitea ngā whakahēnga nunui mō te āhua o te iwi, ā, kaore he mōhiotanga e pupuri ana i te nuinga o ia rōpū.
Ahakoa ka kite a ia i ngā tohenga pai mō ngā taha e rua, ko te whakakāhoretanga katoa o ngā whakaaturanga aukati e āhua ana i te whakahau tōrangapū-tōrangapū, ā, ehara i te pūtaiao"."
I roto i tētahi urupare āhuatanga ki te kōrero a Gill, e tautohe ana a Pareako o te Ankapopiora Koiora C. Loring Brace e tautohe ana ko te take e taea ai e ngā tāngata whakatakoto me ngā anōkapo koiora te whakatau i ngā tākupu matawhenua o tētahi tangata e taea te whakamārama e te mea kei te tūaritia ngā āhuatanga koiora puta noa i te aorangi, ā, kāore e whakamāoritia ki te ariā o te ao.
Ko nga tuhinga a te tangata tuku korero a-tangata e kii ana ko nga iwi koiora tae noa ki nga tau 1970, ka tiimata to tautohe kaore he iwi.
I te Hui-tanguru 2001, i tono nga etita o nga Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine "nga kaituhi kia kaua e whakamahi i te iwi me te iwi i te mea kaore he take koiora, putaiao, hapori ranei mo tenei mahi." "
I te ata (2008) i tiro ki nga pukapuka koiora o te kura tuarua i nga waa 1952-2002 ka kitea he tauira rite me 35% noa e korero tika ana i te reihi i te waa 1983-92 mai i te timatanga 92% e mahi ana.
Ko te ahuwhānui, kua nekehia nga rawa i runga i te iwi mai i ngā āhuatanga mata ki te hītori iranga me te hītori o te wairua.
Ka kī a ia, I te tino pai, ka taea e tētahi te whakamātau ko ngā tohunga koiora me ngā tohunga tikanga tangata ināianei e āhua ōrite ana te wehenga i roto i o rātau whakapono mō te āhua o te iwi.""
E 33 nga kaiwhaiwhai ratonga hauora i te rerekētanga o nga rohe tāwhenua i uiuia i roto i tētahi mātauranga 2008.
He tokomaha nga tohutohu hauora i arotahi ki a African Amerika, e karangatia ana ko Negroes i taua wā, a, i kī hoki he iti iho rātau ki te mā.
I te tau 1910, i whakaputaina e te Tuhitaka tētahi tuhipānui na Ulysses G. Weatherly (1865-1940) i karangatia ai he mana mā me te whakawehe i ngā iwi hei pare i te mā ā iwi.
I roto i tana mahi, ka whawhai a ia i taua karaehe pāpori, i te taipuwhenuatanga, me te āhua o te āhua o nga whakaaro mo te iwi me nga kāwai ā iwi.
I te tau o te tau o te 1978, ka tautohe a William Julius Wilson (1935–) e whakapeka ana te tikanga o te rēhi me ngā pūnaha taunaha ā-iwi, ā, kātahi anō ka whakaahua tika kētia e te karaehe pāpori nga mea i mōhiotia e nga kaitohutohu o mua hei tauomanga.
E kōrero ana a Etera Bonilla-Silva, kaiako mō te tāngata pāpori i te Whare Wānanga o Duke, "E tautohe ana ahau he nui ake te whakahāwea i tētahi atu mea, he take hiko rōpū; e pā ana ki tētahi rōpū ā-iwi kaha (mā) e tautohe ana ki te pupuri i ōna painga pūhohe me ētahi iti e whawhai ana ki te tahuri i te tūnga ā-iwi.
I roto i ngā tautuhinga ā-rongoā, i ētahi wā e whakaarotia ana te tauomaoma i roto i te whakatauanga me te āhuatanga rongoā.
Tērā tētahi taupatupatu hohe i waenganui i nga kaipūkaro rongoā mo te tikanga me te hiranga o te rēhi i roto i a rātau rangahau.
Ko te nuinga o nga mema o te puni whakamutunga e whakatau ana i a rātau tohenga huri noa i te kaha ki te waihanga rongoā whakawhaiaro ā hukapapa.
E tautohe ana rātau mā te whakanui i ngā whakararuraru iranga ki ngā āheinga hauora, he maha nga mōrearea pērā ki te whakakaha i ngā whakapōritetanga, te whakatokonga i te whakahāweatanga iwi, te waiho rānei i te auaha o ngā take kore iranga ki ngā rerekētanga hauora.
Ko "IC"" e tautohu ana mō ""Waehere Tāutunga;"" e kīia ana hoki ēnei tūemi ko ngā taunahatanga Kīnaki."
I ngā whenua maha, pērā ki Wīwī, ka whakakorea ā-turetia te tūnga kia kauā e pupuri i ngā raraunga i runga i te iwi, ā, ko te nuinga o te wā ka whakamōhiotia e te pirihimana kia pānuitia ki te iwi whānui e whiwhi ana i ngā tapanga pēnei i te "kiri pōuri, ērā atu mea."
He tokomaha nga tikanga moe maori e whakaputa ana i tētahi tauira o te whakahāwea ā iwi i runga i te ture.
Ko te herehere nui hoki, te tukutuku nui ake o ngā ture, ngā ture, ngā kaupapa here me ngā tikanga e whakahaere ana i aua tangata hara i tapaina ki roto, i waho rānei o te whare herehere.""
Ko te āhua nei he maha nga kitenga rangahau e whakaae ana pea ko te pānga o te iwi kaiawhe i roto i te whakataunga hopu IPV tērā pea ko te tītaha ā iwi e manakohia ana e ngā kaiawhe mā.
Kua pūrongo ētahi mātauranga ka taea te tāutu i ngā iwi mā te taumata tika rawa mā te whakamahi i ētahi tikanga, pērā i hangaia e Ererī rāua ko Rorohiko.
"I whakamutua e te whakarākeitanga ko ""Te tautoko o ngā rerenga ira ki te tae kiri, ā, kāore e taea te whakamahi mō ngā take o te taunahatanga."""
Ko te tikanga, he manga tikanga tangata e arotahi ana ki te whakaakoranga i te rerekētanga ahurea i waenganui i te tangata.
I te kōrerotanga i tēnei pātai, ka wehea ngā kaimātai i te rau tau 19 ki ngā kura whakaaro e rua.
Ko ētahi o ētahi o ērā nāna i taunaki hanga takitahi", pērā i a Mokowā Henry Morgan, tērā anō e mōhio ana ko ngā ritenga kua puta ngā rōpū rerekē i aua wāhanga ōrite o te kunenga ā-ahurea (Tirohia hoki te hurihurihanga ā-iwi)."
I whakapono a Morgan, pērā ki ētahi atu kaiwhakawhitiwhinga ā iwi o te rau tau 19, tērā tētahi neke atu, iti iho rānei te ōrite o te haere i mua ki te hunga ā iwi.
Ahakoa i kite ngā kaitohutohu o te rau tau-19 i te ngoikore", me te "hanga"takitahi"" hei ariā tāuke tahi me te taumata, ka tere tonu te tae atu ki te nuinga o ngā kaiwhakaatu e puta ana ngā tukanga e rua, ā, ka āhei rāua tahi ki te pūkete tika mō ngā ritenga whakawhiti ahurea."
Na Boas i whakaatu te whakaaro i te tau 1887: "... ehara te iwi i te mea tino nui, engari ... he whanaunga, a ... ko o maatau whakaaro me o taatau whakaaro he pono noa iho i te wa e haere ana o taatau ao." "
Ko te tikanga ā-iwi e pā ana ki nga kerēme tikanga me ngā kerēme tikanga.
Ko te āhuatanga ā iwi he urupare ki te whakaharaharatanga ki te Uru.
E tūtaki ana tēnei mōhiotanga ki ngā tikanga tangata e rua ngā raruraru: i te tuatahi, me pēhea te mawhiti i nga here haehae o tō tātau ake ahurea, e tino whakatika ana i a tātau whakaaro me ngā tautohe ki te ao, me te tuarua, me pēhea te whakamārama i tētahi ahurea tauhou.
Ko tētahi o ēnei tikanga ko tērā o ngā momo kōrero: ko te tikanga, i taunakitia e rātau te noho me ngā tāngata o tētahi atu ahurea mō tētahi wā roa, kia ako ai rātau ki te reo paetata me te tātaitai, ki roto i tētahi wāhanga o tērā ahurea.
Ko tana whakataetae he āhuaatua, he āta whakaaro ki nga mahi pakeke, me te whāinga mawehe ki te whakatū i nga ture a te ao whānui.
E whakapono ana a ia me ako ia ahurea i runga i tōna ake āhuatanga, a, ka tautohe kāore i taea ngā tikanga whakawhiti ahurea, pērā ki ērā i mahia i roto i te mātauranga tūturu.
Ko tōna whakatupuranga tuatahi o nga ākonga ko Awherika Kōpere, ko Robert Lowie, ko Ōtete Paraina, ko Rōte Koru, nā rāua anō i whai tikanga mārama mo nga tikanga maori o Amerika ki te Raki.
Na te tānga o te pukapuka huatau a Awhetātai Kōrearea (1923) i tohu he wāhi huri i roto i te tikanga o Amerika.
I whakaawetia e nga kaiako ā-hinengaro ā-hinengaro, tae atu ki a Siguhōro- rāua ko Kōrero Jung, ka rapu ēnei kaituhi kia mōhio ki te āhua o te āhua o ia āhuatanga i hangaia e nga ope ahurea whānui ake me ngā āwhina pāpori i tupu ai rātau.
Na te tikanga o te ohaoha pūtea i whakaawetia e Kāra Whakatauira, a, i whakawaia e Māhara Sahlin māuiui me Rōpū Toruwēhi, i werohia e rātau te ohaoha pūngao ahurea me ngā take pāpori, ā, ka whakamahia e rātou te mātauranga tikanga tangata a Mēhihi.
I te tiakitanga i nga wā, he maha nga tikanga i pūkinotia i roto i te Pakanga Aratiria o Te Aorangi me te tautohe ki te Pakanga i Whitināmu; Ka nui haere te āhua o te whakaaro ā-pūkenga i roto i te whakatinanatanga.
I nga tau 1980 ko nga pukapuka penei i te Anthropology me te Colonial Encounter e whakaaroaro ana i nga hononga o te tangata whenua ki te koretake o te koroni, i te rongonui nui o nga tohunga penei i a Antonio Gramsci me Michel Foucault i neke ake nga kaupapa o te mana me te rangatiratanga.
Kātahi ka whakahokia ēnei whakamāramatanga ki ōna kaitiaki, ā, ko tōna āhuatanga hei āta whakawhitiwhitinga, he tukanga e kiia ana ko te porowhita herekore.
Ko te wetewete ahurea a David Schnieder mo te whanaungatanga o Amerika kua kaha te awe.
I takea mai te aratuka i roto i te rangahau mo nga tikanga pāpori, i tua atu i a Bronislaw Malinikii i Ingarangi, nga tauira o Franz Boas i Te Hononga o Amerika, i roto anō hoki i nga rangahau taone o muri mai o te Kura Haikaika o Te Pāpori.
Walnut Creek, CA: Pēhi AltaMira.
Hei whakatū i ngā tūhononga e whāia ai ki te mōhiotanga pai ake ki te āhuatanga ahurea o tētahi āhuatanga, me tuwhera tētahi kaitohutohu kia noho hei wāhanga o te rōpū, me te hiahia ki te whakarahi pānga whai tikanga ki ōna mema.
I mua i te kitenga a te kaiuru, me kōwhiri e te tangata tikanga anō he tauwāhi me tētahi arotahi o te akoranga.
Ma tēnei ka taea e te kaitiaki tikanga tangata te whakatū pai ake i roto i te iwi.
I runga i te kōrerorero te nuinga o te tirohanga a te kaiuru.
I ētahi āhuatanga, ka huri hoki ngā kaiwhakawāwā ki te kitenga hanga, e whakahaeretia ana ngā kitenga a te tangata tikanga e tētahi momo pātai e anga ana a ia ki te whakautu.
Mā tēnei e āwhina ki te whakataurite i te aratuka akoranga ina whakaritea te raraunga ā-whakaahua puta noa i ngā rōpū maha, e hiahiatia ana rānei hei whakarite i tētahi whāinga tauwhāiti, pēnei i te rangahau mō tētahi whakataunga kaupapahere kāwanatanga.
Ko wai te kaiwhakawāwā e pā ana ki tāna ka tuhituhi a muri ake nei mō tētahi ahurea, nā te mea ka awea ia kaitaitai e tōna ake tirohanga.
Heoi anō, kāore anō ēnei tohu kia angitu, ā, ko te nuinga o te wā ka kōwhiria e ngā kaiwhakaahua o nāianei te whakauru i ō rātou wheako whaiaro me te tītaha kē ki roto i ā rātou tuhi kē.
Ko te pukapuka kōrero he wāhanga tuhituhi mo tētahi iwi, i tētahi wāhi me tētahi wā.
Kei roto hoki i te pukapuka kōrero noa iho ko ngā mōhiohio mō te papawhenua ōkiko, te āhuarangi me te wāhi noho.
Ko nga ākonga a Boas pēnei i a Whānui L. Kōtiere, i tānga a Rōte Tēkarikari me Maketoro Mead ki tōna whakaaro i te tikanga ahurea me ngā tikanga ā-ahurea ki te hanga i te tikanga ahurea i Te Hononga o Amerika.
I tēnei rā, e haere ana nga kaitiaki tikanga tangata ahurea ki ēnei huānga katoa.
I arotahi ana "ngā kaiwhi tikanga ahurea" o Amerika i runga i ngā āhuatanga i whakapuakina ai e te tangata to rātau whakaaro mo rātau me tō rātau ao, i runga anō i ngā āhua tohutohu, pēnei i te toi me ngā pūrākau."
Hei tauira, he auau te pānuitanga o te pūtahi hei āhuatanga tangata ahuwhānui, engari e whakaatu ana te akoranga whakatairua ehara i te mea.
Mā tēnei whakaahuatanga, ka whiwhi i te mātauranga nui ake ina tirotirohia te pānga o ngā pūnaha-ao i runga i ngā hapori paetata, ao whānui hoki.
Hei tauira, ka whai pea tētahi pukapuka kāhui maha i tētahi mea"," pēnei i tētahi taonga, pērā i tētahi taonga e kawea ana mā ngā whatunga pūmatua huri noa."
Ko tētahi tauira o ngā tatauranga ā-maha ko te mahi a Nanari Scheper-Akiki i runga i te mākete pango o te ao whānui mo te hokohoko o ngā okana tangata.
I te nuinga o te wā e whakawhiti ana te rangahau i roto i ngā akoranga whanaungatanga ki roto i ngā whenua tikanga maha kē, tae atu ki te rongoā, mana wahine mana wahine, me te tikanga iwi whānui.
Ko te poukapa tērā e whānautia ai nga tamariki tangata i roto i te nuinga o nga take, a, ko a rātau kupu tuatahi he whakaritenga whanaunga.
Tērā ngā rerekētanga puta noa i waenganui i ngā hapori mo te mahi mārire me te uara, ka waiho he wāhi nui mo te mahi mātauranga tikanga.
Ko te tikanga mārena e kitea ana i roto i te nuinga o ngā ahurea, he pūmautanga, e moe ana te wahine kotahi ki te tāne kotahi.
He ōrite nga rerekētanga tūturu e āwangawanga ana te mahi whakatārewa.
Ka taea te whai i te huringa ki nga tau 1960, me te arotake ano i nga maataapono matua o te whanaungatanga na Edmund Leach, Rodney Neeham, David Schneider, me etahi atu.
Na te putanga ake o tēnei neketanga i te putanga mai o te manawa o te ngaru tuarua i te omuaraa o nga tau kotahi rau e 1970, nāna i whakamōhio mai he whakaaro mo te tukinotanga mārire, te mana motuhake, me te whakaritenga ā-ikotahi.
I tēnei wā, tērā te taenga mai o "mana wahine o te Ao Tuatoru,", kāore e taea e tētahi nekeneketanga e tautohe ana i ngā akoranga whanaungatanga te tirotiro i ngā pānga ira tangata o ngā whenua mahi whakangātahi, ā, me manaaki anō ki ngā āhuatanga ā-iwi hoki."
I Jamaica, ko te marenatanga hei whare whakahaere i te nuinga o te wa ka whakakapihia mo etahi hoa, na te mea kaore e taea e nga waahine rawakore te whakawhirinaki ki nga takoha putea i roto i te ahua o te koretake o te ohanga.
Me tēnei hangarau, kua puta ake ngā pātai o te whanaungatanga i runga i te rerekētanga o te pānga koiora me te iranga, i te mea ka āhei ngā kaingākau ki ngā kaingākau koiora ki te whiwhi i tētahi taiao koiora mō te kiki, ina noho tonu ngā here iranga ki tētahi hunga tuatoru.
Tērā anō ētahi take o te tāpoitanga whakaputa uri me te whakakotahitanga ā-tinana, i te mea e rapu ana te tangata i te haumarutanga o te ohu mā te whakaataata i te taiakitanga me ngā hēki, ā, he hātepe kino pea.
Kotahi anō te ārohi, he nui rawa te anga o ngā akoranga whanaungatanga i hangaia, i tātaitai hoki, e whakawhirinaki ana ki te reo pākaha me ngā ture pākaha.
Ko te nuinga o tēnei whanaketanga e āhei ana ki te whakawātea i nga tikanga māori e mahi ana i waho o te mātauranga, me te nui haere o te hiranga o te rārangi tangata i roto i nga rōpū tikanga me te papa o te tikanga tangata.
Ko nga momo tikanga e rua e tautuhia ana i roto i te papa o te tikanga , he rōpū tūturu, he rōpū pāpori.
Ka taea e nga tikanga te tātari i nga whakakotahi mahi, ngā umanga, mai i nga umanga iti ki ngā kaporeihana, kāwanatanga, rōpū rongoā, mātauranga, whare herehere, me nga umanga moni.
Ka taea e nga tohunga tikanga pānui te ako i te pātahitanga i waenganui i nga whakahaere, i waenganui rānei i tētahi whakahaere me ētahi atu wāhanga rānei o te iwi.
He mea whakamārama ake anō, ka taea e ngā mātauranga tikanga te tātari i ngā takahanga motuhake i roto i tētahi rōpū whakaritea, te mahi tohutohu rānei, te tātari rānei i ngā tikanga e whakaritea ai, e marara ana rānei te mātauranga me te ahurea.
He maha nga wāhanga hangarau hou e pā ana ki tēnei wā hou, pērā ki te tāhopu aunoa.
Tikanga O Nāianei 43(Tāpiri): S5-17. Ko Schieffelin, ko Bambi B. 2006.
Wūrūru, i roto i tōna tirohanga whānui o te "whakawhiti waehere, te mahi ā-ringa rānei o ngā momo āhuatanga reo kōrere i roto i tētahi kōrerorero, kotahi noa iho rānei, e kitea ana e ngā mātauranga tikanga taketake te pātai tikanga—He aha rātou i pēnā ai?—ka kitea he ariā āhuatanga reo kotahi rānei."
Kua mahi ētahi atu tohunga reo i te rangahau i ngā wāhi hoapā reo, te tūkinotanga reo, me te 'Ingarihi hei reo huri noa'.
Ko nga mahi a Joel Kuipers e whanakehia ana tenei kaupapa vis-a-vis te motu o Sumba, Indonesia.
Kai te mōhio a ia, ko te ariā pū tauira ko tētahi o nga kitenga tikanga e toru o nga tikanga nui rawa o te reo tangata.
Na reira, i muri i nga whakatupuranga tokorua kua kore ēnei reo e kore e taea te korero ināianei.
Hei whai i ngā mahi pai rawa atu o te tuhinga, me ūkui ēnei pūkete, ā, me noho haumaru i roto i tētahi momo pūranga.
Ko te whakaoranga reo te tikanga o te whakahoki mai i tētahi reo ki te whakamahi noa.
E whai ana te akoranga ki te ako i ngā tauira taketake me ngā tauira taketake mō te reo me te ahurea o Rape.
Ko te whakakaha i te hunga e mōhio kē ana ki te reo ki te whakamahi, te whakanui i ngā rohe whakamahi, me te whakanui i te mana nui o te reo he wae whakaoho katoa.
Ko te tikanga ko te mātauranga mo nga tauira whanonga i roto i nga rōpū tangata me nga ahurea tangata.
Ko ngā mātauranga tikanga tangata o Ingarangi, o Ingarangi, tae atu ki a Tett rāua ko Tett, kātahi anō ka ako i Wall Street, he whakamārama kē atu mō te mate pūtea o te tauwhāinga 2007–2010 ki ngā whakamārama ā-hangarau i ū ki te kaupapa o te ohaoha me ngā āhuatanga tōrangapū.
I whakakahatia tēnei whanaketanga e te whakataki a Franz Boas mo te tautohetohe ā-ahurea i runga anō i ngā ariā rerekē mō te ao, nā reira ka mātau tika anake ki ngā tikanga me ngā uara.
I te tau kotahi mano e 1906, i whakatakotoria e te tangata whenua tangata whenua o Amerika ko Hēnati Grant ki tētahi whare whenua o te Kararehe Pārehe, kua tapaina "te hononga ngaro" i waenganui i te uta me te tauoma mā" - Grant, tētahi kairaurau rongonui, he kaitito rongonui, koia hoki te kaitito o te Whiwhinga o te Taumata Nui (1916)."
I te mutunga o te rau tau e 19 ka tīmata te whakatakotoranga tikanga kia mātao rawa atu i te hītori maori, a, i te mutunga o te rau tau kotahi, ka tīmata te whakahauhau ki te whakamātao ki roto i tōna āhua hou - i te tau kotahi mano 1935, tērā pea ka taea e T.K. Pennman te tuhi i tētahi hītori o te whakatakotoranga e huaina ana ko te A Hundred Years o te Ankapopi.
I kitea ngā rōpū Hākoro-Ā-Uropi hei parahau ora"" noa iho, e taea te ako kia mārama ai ki ngā wā o Ūropi o mua."
Heoi anō, he tuhipoka Hea, i tino māharahara a Tylor ki a ia ki te whakaahuatanga me te whakamahere i te tuaritanga o ētahi huānga ahurea, kaua i te taumahi nui ake, ā, ko te nuinga o te wā, ā, ko te nuinga o te āhua nei he āta whakaaro kē a ia ki te haere whakamua, i te āhua o te huringa āhuatanga kāore i te ara tuatahi, i whakaarotia e ngā angiangi o muri ake.
Ko ana akoranga whakatairite, ko te tino ātaahua i roto i nga putanga tini o Te Peka Koura, i tātari ai i ngā ritenga i roto i te whakapono me te tohu i te ao whānui.
Na nga kitenga o te haerenga i tautuhi ai he paerewa hou mo te whakaahuatanga tuhituhi.
Ko ētahi atu kaiwhakaū hinengaro ko W. H. R. Rivers me A.C. Haddon, i kitea ai e ētahi atu kaiwhakaū hinengaro ōna wā nga Parapsychologi o Wilhelm Wundt rāua ko AwhitiRua, me Tā E.B. Tylor, nāna i whakamārama te tikanga tangata hei pūtaiao ā-kaitiaki i muri i a Aokōte.
I whakaputahia hoki e A. R. Radcliffe-Brown tetahi tuhinga roa i te tau 1922.
I tino pēnei tonu tēnei ki Piritini-Paraone, nāna i hora tōna rārangi take mō "Anepapa Pāpori" mā te whakaako i ngā whare wānanga puta noa i te Emepatanga o Ingarangi me Kotahitanga o Ingarangi.
I whakapono a ia me whakamāoritia ngā whakaritenga taketake e whakamahia ana ki ngā raraunga e hāngai ana ki ngā whakaritenga ā-ture o Pākaha-Amerika mō te painga o te kaipānui.
Kua arotahi nga Tari Tikanga Pāpori i nga Wānanga kē ki nga aronga rerekē o te papa.
He tini nga tāngata e whakaarotia ana he katoa.
E whā ngā kāinga — Ko Āteria, Ko wāriu, ko Tiritiri - e tohu ana i a rātau ko Te Tōkeketanga ki ngā tapanga me ngā tukanga ā-ture.
I ētahi wāhi o te ao, kua whānuitia te āhua o te mātauranga ā-iwi i runga i ngā ara tūmomo o te whakamātau, ki te whakaakoranga ā-iwi, ā, ko te tikanga ā-iwi he mea kaha ake ki te Whenua o Te Hononga o Amerika, me te tikanga pāpori i Ingarangi.
He nui te tūranga hira o te hōpututanga o Amerika i te rau 15 e nga kaitoro Pūhura o Ūropi ki te whakatakoto i ngā ariā hou o te Nōnati (te ao ki te Uru), pēnei i te ariā o te "Tētahi."
Ko te nekehanga o te āhuatanga ā-nuku, hei tauira i te tikanga a Claude Lévi-Tae, i ahu mai ki te whakahē i ngā whānautanga o tētahi kauneketanga paerangi, te ātetetanga kikokiko i waenganui i te "ngā iwi whai kōrero" me ngā rōpū kāore he kōrero", i whakawāteahia ki tētahi tirohanga whāiti rawa o te hītori e pā ana ki te tupunga tāpui."
Ko te pānga o te whakanohotanga Ūropi hītori me te haere tonu o Amerika i runga i ngā hapori iwi Taketake, i tino taumaha rawa, ā, he nui ngā mana e whakaaro ana i te whakapeka o te iwi whānui, nā te mate, te tāhae whenua me te mahi tūkino.
Ko te rōpū iwi, i te puku rānei he whakarōpūtanga o ngā tāngata e tautohu tahi ana i runga i ngā huanga tiritiri e wehe ana i a rātou i ētahi atu rōpū pēnei i tētahi huinga noa iho o ngā tikanga, tīpuna, reo, hītori, iwi, iwi, i ngā tikanga pāpori rānei i roto i tō rātou wāhi e noho ana.
Ko te mematanga o tētahi rōpū matawaka ka āhua tautuhia e tētahi tuku ihotanga ahurea tiritiri, tīpuna, pūrākau taketake, hītori, whenua kāinga, reo, whakapāpāho rānei, he pūnaha tohu pēnei i te hāhi, te pūrongo me te tikanga, te tinana, te kāhua kākahu, te āhua tinana rānei.
Mā tētahi neke reo, whakakānga, whakatamatamatanga, tahuringa whakapono, ka āhei pea ngā tangata, ngā rōpū rānei i te wā neke mai i tētahi rōpū iwi ki tētahi atu.
Ahakoa mā te whakawehe, te whakakotahitanga rānei, ka kiia te whakatūnga o tētahi tuakiri whenua motuhake, he iti noa iho.
I te Pākehā Ingarihi Tuatahi, tae noa ki te waenganui o te rau tau 19, i whakamahia ai te iwi ki nga tauiwi, tohunga rānei (i runga i te tikanga o ngā iwi" rerekē "" ērā kāore anō kia whai wāhi ki te oikumene Karaitiana), ki te mea i whakamahia e te Waipiini ("ngā iwi") ki te whakawhiti i te Hiperu goyim ""ngā iwi, ngā Hīperu-kore, ngā Hīperu ehara".
I te rau tau 19, ka whakamahia te kupu i runga i te āhua o te "motuhake ki tētahi iwi, iwi, i te iwi rānei, hei hoki ki te tikanga kariki taketake."
iwi, a. me n.) I runga anō i te horopaki, ka whakamahia ōrite pea te kupu iwi ki te iwi, te ōrite rānei me te tangata whenua (i tētahi āhua rangatiratanga)."
Mēnā ka whakarite te pu iwi hei ahurea ao whānui, he tikanga e here ana ki te whakamāramatanga tika i whakamahia.
E ai ki a Tōtā Hylland Wāhikākā, i whakanuia te mātauranga o te iwi e rua nga tautohetohe tae noa ki nā noa nei.
I tērā taha, ko te tikanga o te whakatangitangi, ko te tikanga ki te puku hei huānga pānui o tētahi rautaki tōrangapū, ka whakamahia hei rauemi mō ngā rōpū huamoni hei whiwhi i ngā whāinga tuarua pēnei i te nui o te rawa, te hiko, te tūnga rānei.
Ka tirohia e ngā kaitapere rātou he tuakiri ā-motu, ā-iwi hoki hei hua o ngā āwhina hītori, i te nuinga o nā tata nei, ahakoa kua whakaaturia ngā tuakiri hei mea tawhito.
Kai roto tēnei i te āhuatanga o nga tautohetohe maha i nga whenua, pēnei i Te Hononga o Amerika me Kānata, he tokomaha nei ōna tokomaha i roto i nga tikanga kē, he maha nga rerenga kē, me te whakakotahitanga i te whenua o Kāriana me Āhia ki te Tonga.
Ko te tuatoru, ko te whakatūnga o te rōpū i takea mai i te puku hai whakahono i te hiko me te tūnga.
I neke atu a Parata i Weber i te āwhina i te āhua hanga o te tūmomo iwi.
I hiahia a ia ki te whakauru atu ki ngā ariā tikanga tangata hei take herenga, me te iwi hei nāianei hei herenga takewhenua, e whakakapia ana ki te arotahi ki te atanga i waenganui i ngā rōpū. "
E whakaae ana ia ki te tirohanga a Joan Vincent e (i roto i te korero a Cohen) " Iwi... ka taea te whakawhäiti, te whakawhänuihia ranei i roto i nga tikanga rohe e pa ana ki nga hiahia motuhake o te kaupapa torangapu.
I whakatūria nga rōpū iwi hei pāpori, kaua ko nga mea koiora.
Ko ngā tauira o ētahi momo aronga he rāhuitanga, he hāngai, he tūturu, he whārōtanga, he mahi hanga, he āhuatanga hou, me te pūoko.
Kei roto anō i """Ngā tikanga take matua", ko te tūnga i mua i te tūnga tangata, ko tērā i takea mai i te puku i mua i tētahi tauwhitinga pāpori tangata, ā, kāore e rerekētia e ia."
Kei roto i te """Hāngaitanga whāinga"" ko ngā iwi ketanga he toronga ia iwi o te whanaungatanga, i takea mai i te wāhi whanaunga, i ngā here pātahi rānei i reira ngā kōwhiringa o ngā tohu ahurea (reo, hāhi, tikanga) kia tika ai te whakaatu i tēnei hototahi koiora."
"Te mātāmua o Geertz,", i taumautia e te tangata whenua tikanga o Pīkara Geertz, e tautohe ana he mana nui rawa te tangata ki te hunga taketake """ pēnei i ngā here toto, reo, rohe, me ngā rerekētanga ahurea."
E rua ngā taupēnga e wehewehe ana a "Smith (1999) i ngā taupēnga e rua: ""perennialism motukore"", e kī ana nāna i tīari ia iwi mō ngā wā roa rawa, ā, ""auau perennialism", e aro ana ki te putanga ake, te whakamutunga me te putanga mai o ngā iwi hei aronga auau o te hītori tangata."
Kai roto i tēnei tirohanga he utauta te ariā o te tūnga tangata e whakamahia ana e ngā rōpū tōrangapū ki te rāweke rauemi pēnei i te rawa, hiko, rohe, tūnga rānei i ngā painga o ā rātou rōpū.
I te kitenga o te tangata i te nuinga o te wā hei utauta makawe, he mea whakamārama i ngā rōpū me ngā tepenga rerekē i roto i te wā""Ka whakamārama te tūrangapū hei tikanga papatūnga pāpori, ko te tikanga ko te iwi te take mō te whakaritenga aroākapa o te tangata."
E ai ki a Donald Kiriwhio, ka puta noa mai te rōpū ā-iwi ina whakapā atu ngā rōpū matatiki ki a rātou anō, ā, ina whakaahuatia aua rōpū e tētahi waeine tiketike o te pānuitanga, te whakataetae, me te hiko pārōnaki anake.
Na te haere tonu ki te ariā a Marau, ko ētahi tikanga o te hiko rerekē me puta mai mo te putanga o te rōpū iwi.
Me tātā nga rōpū iwi kē mō ētahi whāinga noa iho, pēnei i te hiko, i te awenga rānei, te hua rawa rānei, pēnei i te rawa, i te rohe rānei.
E mau ana ko ngā rōpū matawaka anake he hua o te whakawhitinga pāpori tangata, e mau tonu ana kia noho tonu hei hanga pāpori whaimana i roto i ngā rōpū ā iwi.
Kai te pupuri rātau kāore i whakaarotia he āhuatanga tino pai, he mea tika rānei i roto i te whakawhānuitanga o nga rōpū nui.
Ko ngā mema o tētahi rōpū matawaka, kai te tono i ngā tikanga āhuatanga ahurea i roto i te roanga o te wā, ahakoa he tino hanga noa iho ngā mātāmua me ngā mātauranga tikanga, he maha nga uara, ngā tikanga me ngā tikanga e tohu ana i te hononga o mua.
Kai runga anō i te ariā o "ahurea."
I puta tēnei tirohanga hei tikanga ki te whakatautika i te whakararurarutanga o ngā Āporiwi o Awherika, ki te uwhiutanga o ngā ā Iwi Maori i roto i tētahi iwi i whakaū tika ki runga i te wāteatanga mō te katoa.
He tokomaha nga kaipūtaiao tuatahi o taua wā i tango i te ariā mo te rerekētanga ā iwi, a, i kitea he nui ake nga Pākehā mā.
Ehara i te whakaingoa i te tūnga whakawātea o te tāngata tae i Te Hononga o Amerika ki tō rātou tōkuputanga koiora tūturu, i whakaarohia e ia ko tō rātau rahunga kia whakawaimeha ki te ahurea o Amerika.
E tautohe ana rātau ki te Hanganga Ā-Iwi o Amerika, i runga anake te ariā iwi i runga anō i nga tauira neke o te iwi whānuitanga mā, ā, i whakaarohia e rātau ngā wheako ahurei o te hunga kore-mā i Te Hononga o Amerika.
Ko te whakawhenumi i ngā painga ake o tētahi ahurea māori mō te take o te whakaranu ki roto i tētahi kaihautū, kaore i mahi tika mō ētahi rōpū hei urupare ki te whakahāwea me te whakahāwea, ahakoa i mahi mō ētahi atu.
Ka whakaoti rātau i te putanga ake o ngā tūnga-iwi"" i reira i hāngai ai ngā rohenga whakaaro o te iwi (kua rite rānei) ki ngā rohenga tūnga."
Heoi anō, ko ngā kāwanatanga-iwi, ko te nuinga tangata kua aukatia i te oranga o te motu, mō tētahi take, tētahi take rānei.
Tērā pea ko ngā tūnga matatini ko te hua o ngā takahanga matatini e rua, ahakoa ko te waihangatanga o ngā taitapa tūnga o mua tata nei ki te tāupenga ki ngā rohe ā iwi taketake, te nekehanga rānei o te iwi o mua tata nei ki tētahi iwi o mua.
Ko ngā kōrero pērā ki Te Hononga o Piritene Nui, o Wīwī me Huiterangi, he tohu tangata motuhenga ia i to rātau whakatūnga, ā, he nui tonu te āhua o ngā nekeneke, i hua mai ai he rōpū nui tikanga maha", otirā i roto i ngā pa nunui."
Ahakoa ko ēnei kāwai e kōrerorerotia ana hei mema o te iwi whānui, tōrangapū, ka taunakitia rātau i roto i te āhua tūmataiti, te āhua o te whānau kia tino nui rawa atu.
I mua i a Weber (1864–1920), i kitea tuatahitia ai te iwi me te tūnga i te nuinga o te rua o nga wāhanga o taua mea.
E ai ki tēnei tirohanga, kaua te āhuatanga e whakaae ki te tuakiri iwi, iwi, iwi rānei engari me whakaū kē i te ōritetanga tōrangapū me te ture o ia tangata katoa.
No te rau tau kotahi tekau mā 19 i kite i te whanaketanga o te ariā tōrangapū o te iwi kotahitanga, i te wā i herea te ariā o te iwi ki te iwi kotahi, i te tuatahi o nga kaiāwhina o te Aorangi tae noa ki Amihana Gottfried ia Herder.
I whakaūria e ia te ariā kuiti- iwi e whiwhi ana ēnei kāwanatanga i nga whenua anake e nohoia ana e nga Tiamana whenua i nga wā katoa.
I whakamutua te whānuitanga o te whakawāwātanga o Āhia i te rau tau 20, me ngā puku ā iwi mo te rangatiratanga me te manawa ā iwi puta noa i te whenua.
He tokomaha nga whenua o Ūropi, tae atu ki Wīwī me Huiterangi, kaore e kohia he mōhiohio mo te iwi o to rātau iwi noho.
I te wā o te whakatairanga o Ūropi, ka tae mai nga Ūropi ki Amerika ki te Raki.
Ka āhei te tatauranga mamati ki te nui ake ngā wā hei tirotiro i ngā ahurea me ngā rōpū kē.
E whakamāoritia ana e te Tātai Kāwai Pānga ngā āpure akoranga, kaua ko ngā wāhi, tukanga kaua ko ngā tāngata e tukatukatia ana.
Ko te whāinga ko te kohikohi raraunga kia whakatauria ai e te kaitohutohu he iti rawa te tītaha whaiaro i roto i te raraunga.
I ētahi wā ka patohia ngā uiui, ā, ka whakahuatia ā muri ake, e āhei ai te uiuitanga ki te haere tonu i te tuhi tuhipoka, engari me ngā mōhiohio katoa e wātea ana ā muri ake mō te tātaritanga katoa.
Ahakoa ēnei whakamātau āhua pupu rawa, kaore e taea e te kaipūtai te ātete.
Ko te tikanga, e tonoa ana ēnei kaikōrero kia tohu i ētahi atu kaiwhakakōrero e tohu ana i te iwi, i te nuinga o te wā e whakamahi ana i te pōro hukarere, te pūtautau mekameka rānei.
2010) te āta tirotiro i ngā tuhinga arotake me te āhua o raro i te momo pukapuka kōrero.
E kōrero ana ngā kaihautū āria takenui i ngā take hiko i roto i ngā pātahitanga rangahau me ngā hononga i waenganui i te mātauranga me te mana.""
Ka taea te pupuri i tētahi atahanga i roto i te ao ōkiko mā te tirohanga a tētahi tangata, i runga i te tuatahi i runga i ngā wheako o mua o taua tangata.
E whakawhirinaki ana te ariā o tētahi atahanga ki te mātauranga, ā, kua kitea kia whakamahia e te tamariki i runga i te āhua māhorahora, māori hoki.
I tēnei rā, ka whakatūria e nga mātauranga tikanga me nga tikanga pāpori tētahi uara nui mo te mahi rangahau hangarau.
"I ētahi wā ka karangatia ngā whakaahuatanga ko ""ngā akoranga kēhi.""
Ko te tikanga, ko te mahi āpure ko te whakapau i tētahi tau, neke atu rānei i roto i tētahi atu iwi, e noho tahi ana me te akoranga mō ō rātou āhuatanga o te ora.
Me whakaarotia ngā wheako o Benedict ki te pueblo o te Tūpoi-ki-te-mā-ki-te-rā, ko te tikanga o ana mahi āpure whai mātauranga.
Ko ngā whakamātauranga momoho o tētahi pukapuka kōrero noa iho, ā, ko te tikanga kia whai i tētahi whakahuahua hei whakauru i tētahi hītori poto o te ahurea e pātaitia ana, he tātaritanga o te papawhenua ā-tinana, te whenua rānei e nohoia ana e te iwi i raro i te mātauranga, tae atu ki te āhua, ā, i te nuinga o te wā ka kīia e ngā kaipoke tikanga tangata koiora hei wāhi noho.
Ko te whanaunga me te hanganga pāpori (tae atu ki te māka tau, ngā rōpū hoa, ira tangata, ngā pāhono tūtohu, ngā hapu, ngā kaumātua, me ērā atu mea, mēnā kei konei) ko te tikanga kua whakaurua.
He roa nga tikanga, nga tikanga me ētahi atu whakaaturanga whakapono, ā, i ētahi wā he tino puku ki ngā tuhinga, i ētahi wā, i te wā e whakahaeretia ana i te iwi whānui i reira ka kitea e nga tangata whenua tikanga.
Hei tauira, mēnā i roto i tētahi rōpū tāngata, he tohu whakawhitiwhiti te keko, ka rapu ia ki te mōhio tuatahi he aha te tikanga o ngā mea ka kemo (he maha pea ngā mea).
I te whai tonu a Geertz i tētahi mea o tētahi whakahuahua ā-tuhi tūturu, ka neke ki waho o tērā whakahuahua hei kōrero mō "ngā tukutuku" mahue te "whakahuahua" o te ahurea.
Nā te Ahurea Tuhituhi i āwhina ki te kawe mai i ngā huringa ki te tikanga anō o te tikanga anō, o te tikanga o te 'postmodern,' 'āhuatanga,' 'tuhituhi,' 'āhuatanga, 'tūturu' rānei i runga i te āhua, nā te āwhina ngā kuputuhi ki te miramira i ngā āhuatanga ā-tuhi me ngā mahinga tōrangapū
Mo tēnei wāhi whakamutunga, ka noho ahutahi te Tuhi Ahurea ki te tirotiro me pēhea te whakaahua i ngā tikanga me ngā rōpū rerekē me ngā rōpū rerekē me te kore e whakakāhore i te kaupapa o aua tangata me ērā rōpū e ako ana i te wā i taua wā kotahi me te kore takoto tono mō te mōhiotanga tōtika me te mana whārahi.
E ai ki te take o te pukapuka kōrero kia whakamārama, kia whakamārama hoki i ngā tauira o ngā uara, whanonga, ngā whanonga, me te reo o tētahi rōpū tiri ā-ahurea, a Erīhi, (1968), kia mōhio hoki ko Agar (1980) he tukanga taua pukapuka me te hua o te rangahau.
E tautohetohe ana te tohutohu o te kaitātai kiritaki o Sam Ladner i roto i tana pukapuka, e hiahiatia ana e te māramatanga ki ngā kiritaki me ā rātou hiahia ki tētahi huringa i āhua whakaaro", kotahi anake e homai ana e te pukapuka kōrero."
Mā te arotake i te wheako kaiwhakamahi i roto i tētahi tautuhinga tūturu", ka tukua e te āhuatanga o te āhua o te āhua o te mātauranga o tētahi hua, ratonga rānei."
He whakaaturanga o tēnei te hui a Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC).
Ko tōtahi o Jaber F. Gubrium me James A. Holstein (1997) , Ko te Reo Hōu o te Aratuka Huarahi, e kōrero ana i ngā momo tāmaru e ai ki ngā kōrero "aratuka".""
Ko te mea nui, e mau ana te ātaahua ehara ngā kairangahau i te tikanga tōtika i a rātau e tono ana, e whakaaro ana rānei kia pēnei rānei — ā kei ia mahi ko ngā āhuatanga mahi e kore e tika kia mōhiotia e ētahi atu"."
E pupuri ana a ia ko ngā whakaaro"" e tino hiahiatia ana hei pupuri i tētahi rongo pai ki te mahi, kia kore ai hoki e nui ake ngā pūtake o ngā pūtake."
Ko te tikanga o nga tikanga whai tikanga he wāhanga nga tikanga tangata no tētahi whatunga pūkenga whānui ake, tōrangapū hoki, tae atu ki te taiao tangata me te taiao māori, e hiahiatia ana kia pūrongotia i runga i te tohu.
Ko nga kaimātau e mahi ana i nga kōrero pono tata, a, ka huri i a rātau hai take tika.
Ko te pono, ka hapa tonu te kaiwhakawāwā i ētahi āhuatanga i te hapanga o te mātauranga.
Ko ngā iwi taketake, e kiia ana hoki he iwi tuatahi, he tāngata taketake, he tāngata maori, he tāngata hangarau rānei, he rōpū ā-iwi kē rānei, he tangata whenua noa nei ki tētahi wāhi kua whakakotahitia, kua whakatauria e tētahi atu rōpū matawaka.
I te nuinga o te wā ka whakaahuatia ngā tāngata he taketake"" ina puritia e rātou ngā tikanga, ētahi atu aronga rānei o tētahi ahurea tawhito e pāhono ana ki tētahi rohe tuku."
Ka anga tonu ngā iwi taketake ki ngā mōrearea ki tō rātou rangatiratanga, ngā rangatira o te ohaoha, ngā reo, ngā huarahi mō te mōhio, me te uru ki ngā rauemi e whakawhirinakitia ana e ō rātau ahurea.
Ko te whakatau tata o te katoa o te iwi whānui o ngā tāngata Taketake e ahu mai i te 250 miriona ki te 600 miriona.
He tohutoro ki tētahi rōpū tāngata, ko te kupu Iwi Taketake i whakamahia tuatahitia e ngā Pākehā i whakamahia e rātau hei whakarerekē i ngā Iwi Taketake o Amerika i te whakaeke i ngā Āwherika.
I nga tau 1970, ka whakamahia tenei kupu hei hono i nga wheako, i nga kaupapa, i nga pakanga o nga roopu o nga taangata koroni puta noa i nga rohe o te ao.
Ka taea e tēnei āhuatanga te haere tonu ahakoa te wāhi i nui kē atu ai te iwi Taketake i ērā atu tangata o te rohe, o te rohe rānei o te rohe, o te rohe rānei; ko te ariā tautuhi i konei tētahi wehenga i ngā tukanga whakataunga me ngā tikanga ture, ā, ko ētahi, neke atu rānei, e whakaawe ana ki ngā aronga o ō rātou iwi me ō rātou mana whenua.
Kua whakaputaina tētahi pūrongo o ngā Iwi o te Hononga o te Ao whānui 2009 e te Mēkeretaritanga o te Huinga Tūturu mō ngā Take TakeTake: Mo nga rau tau, mai i te wā o tō rātou whakanohotanga, te raruraru, te mahi rānei, kua tuhituhi ngā kōrero o te ātete, te atanga, te mahi tahi rānei me ngā kōrero, nā reira, ka whakaaturia tō rātou whakapono me tō rātou mana ū kia ora me ō rātou tuakiri ariki motuhēhē.
I kitea ēnei tāngata e nga kaituhi o neherā hei tīpuna o nga Kariki, he rōpū tōmua rānei o nga tāngata i noho i Kariki i mua i nga Kariki.
Ko nga Tauaranga (1096-1271) i takea i runga i tēnei hainga o tētahi whawhai tapu ki a wai i kitea e te hāhi he kairangi.
Heoi anō, ka tautokona e te kaunihera ka taea te 'ā-ture' te raupatu i ngā raupatu mēnā kāore e whakaae ana ngā Karaitiana ki te whakaū i ngā Karaitiana me te ture maori o Ūropi.
I te tekau mā 14 me te tekau mā 15 nga rau, ka noho te iwi Taketake o ngā mea ināianei ko nga Motu Kana, e kiia nei ko ngā Motu Kana, e kiia nei ko ngā Motu (i noho nei i ngā moutere mai i te wā o BCE) ka noho ki te kaupapa o nga kaihanga whenua.
I te tau 1402, ka tiimata te Paniora ki te whakaeke me te whakamutu i nga moutere.
Na nga whakaariki i mau mai te whakangaromanga me te mate ki te iwi o Nga Aka, i ngaro atu ai tōna tuakiri me ōna ahurea.
E ai ki ta Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, o Hopa Behrendt, me Hamata Matangi, te akoranga i puta ake i roto i te wā hei whakatautika i te whakahaeretanga a ngā tāngata kāore he Karaitiana, ā-Pākehā me ngā murunga o ō rātou whenua me ō rātou mana.""
I utua e Kingi Spanish a Ferdinand raua ko Kuini Isabella a Christopher Columbus, i tukuna i te tau 1492, ki te noho whenua me te kawe whenua hou ki raro i te karauna Spanish.
I hoatu e Arehanāna ki Paniora ētahi whenua i kitea i te roanga kāore anō kia riro" i a rātau i mua e tētahi rangatira Karaitiana.""
He tokomaha nga kaiwhakakōrero i āta mataku, ki te whakaae te iwi Taketake ki te Ngākau Karaitiana, ā, kaore e whakaaetia e te ture te whakaekenga o rātau whenua me te tāhaetanga i a rātau taonga.
I te mea he whenua Katorika i te tau 1493, ka mahi a Ingarangi me Parani ki te 'whakamaori ano' i te Akoranga o te Discovery ki te whakatutuki i o raatau hiahia koroni.
Ko ngā kerēme whenua i hangaia ma te tohu "ngā tikanga whakahura" i mahia ai hei whakaahua i te take ā-ture o te iwi whakawhanake ki te whenua.
I te 1774, ka ngana a Kapene James Cook ki te whakakore i nga kereme whenua Paniora ki Tahiti ma te tango i o raatau tohu rangatira ka anga ka whakatuu i nga tohu pupuri Ingarihi.
I whakaritea e tēnei ariā te ariā kāore ngā whenua kāore i te whakamahia i runga i tētahi āhuatanga i whakatuwheratia e ngā pūnaha ā-ture o Ūropi mō te whakakorenga o Ūropi.
I te whakatūnga o ngā 'ture' o te whakanohotanga ki te akoranga ture i whakaaetia e ngā mana kawanatanga o Ūropi, ka tere tonu te roha o nga tikanga whakatakoto kerēme ki ngā whenua iwi Taketake.
He tino uaua te whakatau tata mō te katoa o te iwi Taketake o te ao, kua uaua ki te whakahiato, nā ngā uauatanga i roto i te whakaaturanga, i ngā tāupenga me ngā āhuatanga o ngā raraunga tatau e wātea ana.
Kei roto i tēnei te neke atu i te 5,000 ngā tāngata motuhēhē i neke atu i ngā whenua e 72.
Ko ētahi anō i whakawaimehatia e ētahi atu iwi whānui, kua pā rānei ki ētahi atu huringa maha.
Ko te tikanga he whakawātea, he maha nga rōpū iwi kē e noho ana i te nuinga o ngā wā o Āwherika, he takitahi ngā tāngata o Awherika, ōna āhuatanga, ahurea, kaiwhakangahau, kaiwhakangahau rānei, e whakawāteatia ana, e wehewehea ana rānei i ngā hanga tōpū, o te āhua o te iwi.
Ko te pānga o te whakanohotanga Ūropi hītori me te haere tonu o Amerika i runga i ngā hapori iwi Taketake, i tino taumaha rawa, ā, he nui nga mana e whakaaro ana i te whakapeka o te iwi whānui, nā te mate, te tāhae whenua me te tukino.
I ngā wāhi ki te tonga o Oapahaka (65.73%) me Ihāra (65.40%), He Taketake te nuinga o te iwi whānui, e pērā ana ki te tau 2015.
Kua taka "ngā kaiwhakaahua ""Initia", me te ""Eskimo"" ki te whakakore i Kānata."
Ko te tino mōhiotanga ko te huringa o ngā Take Taketake me te Whanaketanga ki te Raki kānata (AANDC) ki te Take me te Raki o Kānata (INAC) i te 2015, ā, ka wehe atu ki ngā Ratonga Taketake o Kānata me ngā Hononga Karauna-Taketake me te Whanaketanga ki te Raki kānata i te tau 2017.
I hainatia e ngā Iwi Tuatahi e 11 nga tiriti i tua atu i te nuinga o ngā mea e mōhiotia ana ināianei ko Kānata i waenganui i te 1871 me te 1921, hāunga ko ngā wāhanga o British Columbia.
Ko te rohe motuhake o Greenland i roto i Te Rangatiratanga o Tenemāka, ko te kāinga hoki ki tētahi iwi Taketake e mōhiotia ana, te nuinga hoki o Inuit (āhua e 85%) nāna i whakatau taua rohe i te rau tau 13, e whakawhiti ana i te iwi Taketake me kākāriki Norse.
I ngā whenua Pāniora, Potukara rānei, ka kitea e tētahi te whakamahinga o ngā kupu pēnei i ngā índios, i ngā rangirua āhuaatua, i ngā amerindio, pona natiho, poan indígenas, ā, i Pere, comunidades Nativas (Iwi Maori), i waenganui i ngā rōpū O amazonia pēnei i Uraina me Matés.
E kitea ana nga tāngata taketake i te rohe katoa o Parīhi, ahakoa ko te nuinga o rātau e noho ana i roto i ngā tohutohu Īnia i te wāhi o te Raki me te Pokapū-Uru o te whenua.
I tenei wa he maha ake nga Armenians e noho ana i waho o to ratou whenua tupuna na te kohurutanga o Armenia o 1915.
I tāurutia e te tohenga te papātanga o Iharaira–Pārihia i nga tau kotahi rau o te tau o 1990, ā, ko ngā Pārihiana e tohu ana i te tūnga Taketake hei iwi whānui tīariari kua whakawhitia e te kāinga Hurai, ā, i tēnei wā, ko te iti noa iho o te āhua o Iharaira.
I Rūhia, ko te whakamāramatanga o ngā iwi taketake"" ka whakataetaetia te nuinga o ngā iwi whānui (iti iho i te 50 000 ngā tāngata), me te waiho i te kitenga whaiaro, i takea mai i ngā iwi taketake i noho i te whenua, i te takiwā rānei, i te whakaekenga, i te whakatūnga rānei o ngā rohe, ngā tikanga pāpori, ahurea, ahurea rānei."
He taketake nga Tīpetiana ki a Tīmata.
I Hong Kong, ko nga tangata whenua o nga Whenua Hou e whakamaramahia ana i roto i te Whakapuakanga Tahi o Ingarangi me te Ingarangi i te whakapapa o te tangata mai i te raina tane mai i te tangata i te 1898, i mua i te Kawenga mo te Whakaroitanga i te rohe o Hong Kong.
Ko Te Kamoho te iwi taketake o te whenua o mua o Champa, i rutu nei a Vietnam i nga pakanga o Kahanga–Vietnam i te wā o Nam tiến.
Ko Khmer Kūm te iwi taketake o Te Mekong Delta me Saigon, i riro mai i a Whitināmu i a Kīngi Kemipotia Ko Kere Chettha II hei whakawhiti mo te pirinihi rōpū o Vietnam.
Ka tiria tēnei raruraru e ētahi atu whenua maha i te rohe o TTW.
Ko ngā tāngata taketake o Mindanao ko ngā tāngata o Mua me TeMoro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao me ētahi atu) e noho ana hoki i te tiotio o Huulu.
Ko ēnei rōpū e kōrero tahitia ana ko nga Rangatira Taketake.
I te wā o te rau tau e 20, he tokomaha o ēnei whenua o mua i whiwhi i te rangatiratanga me ngā whenua-iwi i hangaia i raro i te mana paetata.
Ko ngā toenga o ngā toenga neke atu i te 25 ngā tangata iti, i noho rānei i waenganui i te 1,000 me te 3,000 tau ki mua nei, i kitea i ngā motu o Palau i Maikoroni.
E ai ki te tatauranga o te tatauranga o te tau 2013, ko Māori o Aotearoa e 14.9% o te iwi whānui o Aotearoa, he iti iho i te haurua (46.5%) o ngā tangata katoa Māori e mōhio ana ko Māori anake.
He tokomaha Māori ngā kaiārahi o te motu i haina ki te Tiriti o Ingarangi, ki te Tiriti o Waitangi (1840), i kitea i roto i ētahi porowhita, he mea hanga i te whenua tōpū ā-rohe o nāianei ko Aotearoa.
Kei roto i ēnei take ko ngā tohu ahurea me te puriwhenua, ngā mana whenua, te pupuritanga me te apo i ngā rauemi maori, te mana motuhake tōrangapū me te mana motuhake, te whakaiti taiao me te whakaeke, te rawakore, te hauora, me te whakatoinga.
Ka āhei te pōraruraru kē atu i te wā he hītori hekenga, he tauwhāinga rānei o te hekenga me te iwi whānui o tētahi rohe i tukuna, e taea ai te whakatika atu ki ngā tautohetohe mō ngā tohutohu me te rangatiratanga o te whenua me ngā rawa.
Ahakoa te rerenga kētanga o ngā iwi taketake, tērā pea e kitea ana e tiritiri ana rātau i ngā raruraru me ngā take pūnoa i te mahi ki te hunga nui, te whakaari rānei, te whakaari rānei i te iwi.
Ko ngā okotahi mōhiotanga ko ngā iwi o Sakapa me Komi (e rua ngā tāngata taketake ki te raki o Rūhia), e whakahaere ana ināianei i o rātau ake whenua motuhake i roto i te rohe o Rūhia, me Kānata Inuit, e mahi ana i te nuinga o te rohe o Nunawat (i hangā i te tau 1999).
I te mutunga o tēnei ākiritanga i te mōhiotanga tērā tētahi pūnaha ture tīariari i whakamahia e te iwi o Pūrongo.
I tīkina i te 11 o Āketopa 2011.
Kua pā ki ngā hāhi me ngā whakatoinga iwi tangata whenua, i ngā rāhuitanga i runga i to rātau whakapono i raro i te kāwanatanga o Vietnam, e murua ana e te āhua o Vietnam te pānga o Cham me te whakakore i a Cham kia kaua e mātakina ki o rātau whakapono.
I te tau 2012, ka tāhaetia e nga pirihimana o Vietnam i te kāinga o Ruko Giang ki tētahi WhareNui o Cham, ka tāhaetia te whakahiko hiko, me te whaki hoki i ngā kōtiro aCham.
I te tau 2012, i kī mai a Initonīhia 'E tautoko ana te Kāwanatanga o Initonīhia i te whakatairanga me te parenga o te iwi taketake puta noa i te ao katoa ... Ahakoa rā, kāore a Initonīhia i te mōhio ki te taupānga o te ariā o te iwi taketake ... i te whenua'.
I whakawaengatia tuatahitia ngā Vietnam i waenganui i te Delta Awa Whero, engari i tautohetia ki te raupatu, ā, ka pāngia he whenua hou pērā ki Champa, te Meki Delta (mai i Kamipōtia) me ngā Pūene Matua i te wā o Nam Tien.
Na te tauine tino nui o nga rāhui Kinh Vietnam e waipuke ana ki ngā Pūtake Waenganui, kua tino whakarerekētia ngā taupori o te rohe.
Kāore anō kia tangohia tētahi ahurea e tētahi."
Kua mōhiotia nga iwi taketake o mua, he mōrearea, he tūārewa rānei.
Ko ētahi tohunga whakaaro, pērā ki a Tōtōti Hobbes (1588-1679), e whakaaro ana ko te iwi taketake he hunga māia"" noa iho."
I tīkina mai i te Pūranga Ipurangi 13 Hōnore 2013.
Ko te Whakapuakitanga UN mō ngā Mōtika o ngā Tāngata Taketake, i whakaaetia e te Huihuinga Nui i te tau 2007, i whakatūria ai te mana o te iwi taketake ki te whakatauke i a ia anō, e tohu ana i ngā motika maha e pā ana ki te whakahaere rawa māori.
Ka taea e te mahi hinu te whakangaro i nga tau ahurea e hia mano mo Āteia.
Ko ngā kaupapa whanaketanga pēnei i te hanganga paepae, ngā huapae me te unuhanga rauemi kua rewa i te nuinga o ngā tāngata taketake, i te nuinga o te wā, kāore he utu.
Kia ngaro i a rātau o rātau oranga nga wāhine nei e whakawhiriwhiri ā-wahine ana ki nga tāngata.
Hei tauira, ko nga tāngata Rūahauku i te tūnuku o Amazon e ātete ana i te hanganga o te pāpuni o Tapajó me te āwhina a Hāmae.
E rua ngā tauari matua e marohitia ana, he roha moata ki Awherika Ki te Tonga, me te pūtake kotahi o te whakamararatanga mai i reira, he wehenga wawe rānei ki tētahi hihi whaka te rawhiti, whaka te tonga, me te ngaru kotahi e neke ana puta noa i te pehipu o Kongo ki Āwherika ki te Rāwhiti, ā, ko tētahi atu e neke ana ki te tonga i te takutai o Āwherika me te pūnaha a te Awa o Kongo ki Ākorangi.
Ko te tikanga kararehe e whakamahia ana i waenganui i ngā rōpū whakataka Bantu o nāianei, tērā pea ko te whiwhinga o te kau i Sudanic Pū, i Kuliak, i ngā hoa noho tūroro Pehuiti.
Kāore i tawhiti atu i te awa o Mutirikiwi, ka hangaia e nga kīngi Monomatapa te matatini o Zimbabwe Nui, he tipuna tangata ki te iwi o Kanga.
Ko te ahurea Hāhiri i puta mai i ēnei whakawhitinga, he maha nga āhuatanga Arāpia me te Āmāri kāore i kitea i roto i te ahurea tawhito o Bantu, pēnei i ngā mema tokomaha o ngā Tāngata Afro-Arāpia o te iwi o Bantu Swahili.
I muri iho i te Pakanga Nui II, ka whakaae ngā kāwanatanga o te Rōpū Ā iwi ki taua tikanga o taua whakamahinga, i te wā ka huri kē te nekeneketanga tōtōpū ā-Awherika me ōna pānga nui ki te kupu "Āwherika, kia kitea kētia ai ""Bantu"" ki ngā kaupapahere o te whakaaetanga."
I whakakāhoretia anō e te pānga ki te whakatauke i te kupu, ā, ka neke te kāwanatanga o Awherika ki ngā kupu ā-iwi ā-iwi, engari he ingoa tinihanga hōnore " whenua-iwi."
I Reina ko te tātā ko te -ntfu, a, ko te tūingoa he taumata.
Ehara ngā Pakihi katoa i te tukuoro Pakihi.
Pākihi o nāianei) me te hiku -(k)ara (ara"o te mahi i tētahi mea"")."
E whakapūketetia ana e ia te ingoa o te reo Pakihi hai whakaata.
Ahakoa he momo āhuatanga motuhake ētahi āhuatanga, he tino ā-Ūropi tonu ngā Pakihi mēnā e ai ki ā rātou raupapa Y-DNA me mtDNA, ā, ki ētahi atu take iranga.
Heoi anō, i kitea e ngā mōhiotanga o ngā rōpū Haplolo DNA-Y i runga i o rātou rārangi tāne hāngai, he mana ngātahi te nuinga o ngā Pākihi o nāianei me ērā atu Pākehā ki te Uru, arā ko tētahi tikanga hou o Indo-European Haplogroup R1b-DF27 (70%).
Ahakoa te nui o te auautanga i Pakihi, kei raro iho rā te rerenga rautanga ā-Y-STR o R1b-DF27 i reira, ā, ko ngā hua i roto i ngā whakatau tata o te pakeke", e kī ana ka kawea mai ki te rohe i tētahi atu wāhi.
I tino rerekē te kohinga o ngā rōpū haplogroups mtDNA me Y-DNA i whakaritea ki ō rātou auautanga hōu.
Heoi anō, e 4500 tau kua tata ki ētahi taonga tuku iho o Y-DNA katoa mai i te tirohanga kaiwhainga-kaiwhānau Mesolithic me ngā kaiahuwhenua Neolithic, i whakakapia e ngā rārangi R1b o ngā pūtāmua Indo-European mai i te tītaha, ā, ko te āhuatanga o te tūturu o Pākihi, ko te tūturutanga o te tokomaha rākau, ko te whakamutunga.
I tirotirohia e Mātai Ikōkōkā i te Whare Wānanga o Uppsala i Huitene i te rākau iranga mai i ngā kōkau tāngata o te Pakeke Pōhatu e waru i kitea i El Portalón Cavern i Ngāuerca, i Paniora ki te raki.
I pānuitia nga kitenga i roto i ngā Takahanga a te National Academy of Sciences of the United States.
I kitea hoki tēnei rōpū konārii hei tīpuna mō ētahi atu tāngata Iperia o nāianei, engari i te noho āhua noho motuhake o ngā Pākihi mō ngā mano taurua i muri mai i tēnei wā, nā ngā hekenga ā muri ake ki Iberia i ārahi atu ki tētahi atu mīharo mō ērā atu rōpū Iberia.
He nui rawa ngā whakaaturanga hei tautoko i te ariā, i taua wā, ā muri ake rātau ka kōrero i ngā momo tawhito o te reo Pakihi (tirohia: Reo koia).
Ko te Kingitanga o Pamplona, tētahi kingitanga pākihi matua, e mōhiotia ana a muri nei ko TamaWae, he tukanga tohetohe, ā, i raro i te āhuatanga o ōna hoa noho nui ake a Aragona, Kiriria me Wīwī.
Nā te pakanga ā iwi o Navaress,i i hinga te nuinga o te ao i mua i nga whawhai a ngā ope Pāniora (1512–1524).Nā te pakanga ā iwi o Navaresse i hinga te nuinga o te ao i mua i nga whawhai a ngā ope Pāniora (1512–1524).
Ahakoa rā, he nui te pai o te kāwanatanga o te kāwanatanga o te pākihi, tae noa ki te Wīwī o te Wīwī (1790) me ngā Taua o RārangiTakina (1839, 1876), i te tautokotanga a ngā Pākihi i te kitenga o Kēhi V me ōna uri.
Ko te iwi motuhake (he ariā i whakatūria ki te Kaupapahere Paniora o te tau 1978) e mōhiotia ana ko Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa, EAE rānei i Basque me te Comunidad Autónoma Vasca, CAV rānei i te reo Pāniora (i te reo Ingarihi: Āporo Motu motuhake o Basquea, BAC rānei), he mea hanga i ngā kawanatanga Paniora e toru o Álava, Biscay me Gizpukoa.
I ētahi wā e kīia ana ko "te Whenua Pakihi" (Euskadi rānei) e ngā kaituhi me ngā mana tūmatanui e whakaaro ana anake ki aua kawanatanga ki te uru e toru, engari i ētahi wā anō hei whakapotonga ngāwari ina kore tēnei e mōrearea i roto i te horopaki.
I runga anō i te whakamahinga whānui o te Pākihi Utu Wīwī ("Whenua Pakihi), i te korenga o tētahi atu tohu, e tohu ana ki te Whenua Pakihi katoa ("Euskal Herria"" i Pakihi), kāore rānei i te tino wātea ki te raki ("Wīwī") Whenua Pakihi anō rānei."
Kia mōhio koe, i roto i ngā horopaki hītoria e pā ana ki tētahi rohe whānui ake, ā, kei te kiia hoki te rohe Pakihi ki te raki o Te Hinerangi o Raro i te Rā Hinerangi, he wāhanga anō o Nafarroa, i te mea kei te tūtakia anō te kupu ""Tikewae Teitei"" (Nafarroa Garaia i Basque, Alta Navarra i te reo Pāniora) he tikanga e kōrero ana ki te rohe o te iwi motuhake o tēnei rā."
He whakahau te mōhiotanga ki te reo Pāniora i raro i te kaupapa ture pāniora (kāo.
I muri iho i te mōhiotanga ki te Pakihi, i muri i te whakapekatanga o nga tau maha i te wā o te manaakitanga o Whakapae i runga i te whakatoinga ā-mana, kua ara ake anō nā ngā kaupapahere reo whai mana me ngā tautoko whai take.
Ko te Pāniora anake tētahi reo ā mana o Te Tautahi, ā, ko te reo Pakihi anake he mana ā-rū i te rohe ki te raki o te kawanatanga, e ārotahi ana te nuinga o te reo Pakihi Tamawae.
Ko te nuinga o tēnei taupori e noho ana kei te tata atu rānei ki te whitiki taone o Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) i te takutai (i Basque ko Baiona, Angelu me Miarritze).
E hia miriona ngā uri Pakihi (tirohia te Pakihi Amerika me te Pakihi Kānata) e noho ana i Amerika ki te Raki (te Hononga o Amerika; Kānata, ko te nuinga o nga kawanatanga o Tuawhenua, o Kiupei), ko Amerika rātini (i ngā whenua katoa e 23), i Awherika ki te Tonga, me Ahitereiria.
Ko ngā whakatau tata awhe i waenganui i te 2.5 - e 5 miriona ngā uri Pakihi e noho ana i Hiri; He tino nui te Pakihi mehemea ehara i te āhuatanga tino kaha o te whanaketanga ahurea me te ohanga o te whenua.
Ko te nuinga o te wāhi koia nei te tūnga o Chihuahua me Durango.
I Kuatamāra, kua ārotahitia te nuinga o ngā Pakihipera ki te Tari o Sacatepequez, o Antigua Guatemala, o Ēpa mō ngā whakatipuranga e ono whakatupuranga ināianei, me ētahi kua heke ki Guatemala City.
He pūtake pākiki to Te Rongoāra o Te Rongoāra, he pūoro ā-iwi o Kōpia.
Ko Elko, Nerā, e tautoko ana i tētahi hākari Pakihi ā-tau e whakarite ana i te kanikani, i te kanikani me ngā ahurea o ngā tāngata pākihi o te reo Pāniora, o Wīwī, me ngā whenua o Mehihi, kua tae mai ki Nerā mai i te wā o te rau tau 19.
Ka kitea i tēnei rohe ētahi o nga pāmu nui rawa o Amerika ki te Raki, i whakatūria i raro i ēnei rawa whenua.
Tērā tētahi hītori o te ahurea Pakihi i Chino, California.
Ko te nuinga o rātau he uri no Paniora me Mehiko.
Ko tēnei āhuatanga o te tuakiri Pakihi e herea ana ki te reo paetata, kāore i te tīari ki te whakatōngā noa iho.
Pērā ki te maha o ngā āhuatanga o Ūropi, he tuakiri ā-rohe, he mea take ā-reo, kāore rānei, i te tāuke tahi ki te tangata ā iwi whānui ake.
He hoa ōku kai roto i te taha tōrangapū o nga mea, engari ehara nāku tēnā.
He takitahi rawa ngā tukuoro reo Pakihiki: ko te tikanga he reorua katoa ngā tukuoro Pakihi i ngā taha e rua o te taitapa.
E whakaarotia ana he reo Pakihi ia he reo iranga e wehe atu ana ki ētahi atu reo Pākehā, e tata ana ki ērā katoa nō te whānau reo Indo-Uropi whānui.
Ko te kāinga i roto i tēnei horopaki he ōritahi ki nga pakiaka whānau.
Pērā ki ētahi atu ahurea, i whakawhirinakitia te tukunga o ētahi atu mema whānau i runga i ngā rawa o tētahi whānau: ko ngā whānau Pakihi rangatira e whakarato ana i ngā tamariki katoa, engari kotahi anake te rawa o ngā whānau rangatira hei homai ki te tamaiti kotahi.
I te nuinga o te whānautanga o ngā whanaungatanga, ka puta tēnei pūnaha ki te hekenga o te tini o ngā pākihi ki Paniora, i Wīwī, i Amerika rānei.
Kua ngana ētahi o ngā pūāhua me ētahi kaitakitaki ki te whakataurite i ēnei piro mā te whakaaro ko te whanaungatanga whakariterite e tohu ana i tētahi mahi hou.
I puta mai rātau i te kāwanatanga o Whakapakoko me te reo me te ahurea whakaora.
He pūtake te rohe mo ngā mihinare pērā i a Francis Nūte me Miharo Garicots.
Ko Lasuén te kaiwhakawhiti ki a Franciscan PatoNono Junípero Serra, a, i whakatūria e ia e 9 o nga 21 ngā Hāhi o California i te takutai.
Tae noa ki te wā i tahuri ai a Henry III o Iereere ki te Whakapakari Katorika kia noho hai kīngi o Wīwī, ka tata ngaro atu te Whakapōhurutanga i te iwi o Pakihi.
I ēnei rā, e ai ki te whakaaro kotahi, he iti ake i te 50% o ngā Pakihi e whakapuaki ana i ētahi momo whakapono ki te Atua, i te toenga rānei e mōhiotia ana, he atua rānei.
E ai ki tētahi, ka tae mai te Karaitiana ki te Whenua o Pakihi i te wā o te keneturio 4 me te 5, engari me tērā atu, kāore i tupu tae noa ki te rau tau 12 me te tekau mā 13.
I tēnei āhuatanga, i tae mai te Karaitiana "moata."
Kia rite ki tētahi tikanga, i haere ia e whitu tau i waenganui i tētahi ana i Maunga Anpoto me tētahi i runga i tētahi atu maunga (rerekē nga kōrero); Ka maku te rangi i a ia i Anoto, ka maroke i a ia i Aloa, i Huhariki ranei, i Gorbea ranei.
E kī ana, i to rātau huihuinga ki nga ana tiketike o nga taumata tapu, ka whakaahuatia e rātau nga āwhā.
E korerotia ana hoki e te hunga whakaaro nui, he tini nga kerehe, he pera me te tini o metaratara, he pera me nga tangata roroa, he rite ki te niminga), me te mairuka (nga kaihanga o nga taratara, o nga porowhita kohatu, he pakiaka pono), iratxoak (kikokore), tokowha (tohunga wahine, tohunga o Mari), me ētahi atu.
Tērā tētahi kaiwhakangau ko Hana Matini Txiki (Hato Matini Iti")."
Ko te āhuaatua ('Giants'), he tāngata mōhiotia, e whakamārama ana i te ngaronga o te iwi o te Pakeke Kohatu i noho ai ki nga whenua tiketike, ā, kaore he mōhio ki te rino.
Kua neke atu i te rau tau, kua tino kōrerorerotia e nga tohutohu te tūnga tiketike o nga wāhine Pakihi i roto i ngā waehere ture, me ō rātou tūnga hei kaiwhakawa, he hunga tuku iho, me ngā whakatakotoranga mā ngā wā o mua-Romana, o te hōro o mua, me ngā wā o nāianei.
He tikanga motuhake ta Te Tamawae, he whakaritenga tohetohe i hangaia i te tauwhirotanga Paniora ki te kāwanatanga ā-Iwi (te Amejoramiento, he 'whakamohoa' o tōna tūnga tōmua i te wā o te tāketanga).
He tino matatini nga pātai ki ngā pātai tōrangapū, reo, ahurea me te tuakiri i Te Tama aWatea.
Ko te nuinga o nga kura i raro i te mana whakahaere o te pūnaha mātauranga Pakihi e whakamahi ana i Pakihi hai nuinga mātāmua o te whakaakoranga.
Waihoki, ko te hiahia kia nui ake te mana motuhake, te rangatiratanga rānei, he tino pūnoa i roto i ngā tō pākihi ā-pēhi.
E whakaaro ana rātau ko rātau he ahurea, a, ko te tino āhuatanga o te āhua o te āhua o te reo i a rātau hoa noho tata.
Ko Miere de Unamuno tētahi kaituhi pūrākau me te kaipōnoho o te tōmuritanga o te rau tau 19 me te rau tau e 20.
I whakaūria anō e ia te Pānga Ūniana o te Mahi o Hihia kia whakatokona he nekehanga uniana i runga anō i nga whakaakoranga pāpori a te Hāhi Katorika.
E mārama ana i te rohe Maunga o Poiaha ki te raki o Botswana te tūnga hītori o Hana i Botswana.
Mai i te 1950 ki te 1990, ka huri nga hapori o San ki te mahi ahuwhenua na te mea kua whakahaua e te kawanatanga nga kaupapa hou.
Ko ētahi rōpū Hana tētahi o ngā kāhui tāpiri e 14 e mōhiotia ana "ngā kāhui iwi whānui; arā, ""ngā rōpū iwi whānui ki ngā tāpuaki iranga pūnoa, e tiritiri ana i te iwi, i ngā ritenga i roto i to rātau ahurea me ngā āhuatanga o rātou reo"."
I kīia e ngā māngai o ngā tāngata o Hana i te tau 2003 tō rātou manakohanga ki te whakamahi i aua ingoa rōpū takitahi, ki te wāhi e taea ai te whakamahi i te wāhanga o te kupu ā-rōpū Hana.
Ka haere tonu ahau ki te whakamahi i a Bushman, a, he maha aku whakatikatanga i te wāhi tangata e te hunga tika.
Engari, i kaha tonu te mangai o te Kaunihera o San Council kaore he mamae, he whara ranei i pa ki a ratau ko te hapori San me te ahua i whakaputaina e (Die Burger) te kupu 'boesman'. "
He ōrite te whanaungatanga o Hana ki te whanaungatanga o Eskimo, ā, he ōrite ngā ture pērā ki ngā tikanga o Ūropi, engari ka whakamahia hoki te ture ingoa me tētahi ture pakeke.
Kaore he mahi pāpori a te tamariki i tua atu i te tākaro, ā, he tino nui ki Hana o nga pakeke katoa.
E mahi ana rātau i nga whakataunga hira a te whānau me te rōpū, a, e tono ana rātau ko te rangatiratanga o nga puare wai me nga wāhi raruraru.
Tērā pea ka maroke ngā tauraki, he maha ngā marama me ngā kahunga wai.
Ka kōkuhua ki roto i tēnei rua he tātā pātītī hākaro roa.
Ko te kōanga tōmua te wā uaua rawa: he wā maroke wera i te taha o te hōtoke mātao, maroke.
E kohia ana e nga wāhine he hua, he hua, he kōpura, he aniani ngahere, me ētahi atu rawa tipu mo te whakapaunga a te pēne.
I runga anō i te tauwāhi, ka pau te 18 ki te 104 momo o Hana, tae atu ki te mawhitiwhiti, ngā pāpapa, ngā urupa, ngā pōtae, te rere, me ngā pae.
Ko ēnei rōpūkōpū he rōpū-roto whāiti o ngā rōpūkōpū A me B, ko ngā peka tuatahi e rua i runga i te rākau Y-chromosome tangata.
Ko te rōpū haplolo rōpūtoko (tawhito rawa) pāngarau(tawhito rawa), ko L0d, kua tāututia i ōna auautanga teitei rawa atu i ngā rōpū San ki te tonga o Awherika.
Na te nuinga o nga tāngata me nga kaiahuwhenua taketake i pāngia ai te Hana e te nuinga o nga tāngata me nga kaiahuwhenua kahurangi ki te whenua i nohoia noatia e te iwi o Hana.
Ko te ngaronga whenua he kaitāpae matua ki nga raruraru e anga ana ki nga iwi taketake o Botswana, tae atu ki te whakapūtātanga o Hana mai i te Tākaro o Te Tahaari pūtahi.
Ma tēnei e whakawhiwhia nga utu ātea ki te Hana mo nga painga o to rātau mōhiotanga taketake.
I tipu ake a Van der Post i Āwherika ki te Tonga, a, he manaakitanga tūturu i nga tikanga maori o Āwherika.
I taraia e tēneiiwi kua ngaro", i pānuitia e Van der Post tētahi pukapuka kotahi mano e 1958 mo tēnei haerenga, e huaina ana ko Te Ao Ngaro o te Manaari."
Ko tana whitiāhua tuatahi, ko The Hunters, i wātea i te tau kotahi rau e iwa rau e 1957, e whakaatu ana i tētahi rapunga tirapa.
He maha nga pukapuka me nga tuhipānui maha mo Te Hana, nā tana tuahine, o Elizabeth Marshall Thomas i tuhituhi, i runga anō i ōna wheako e noho tahi ana me ēnei iwi ina mau tonu to rātau ahurea.
I arotakea tēnei e Lawrence Van Gelder mō te New York Times, nāna i kī ko te pikitia "he mahi tiaki, he tauira."
Ko nga whakaaturanga a te BBC The Life of Mammals (2003) kei roto i nga riipene ataata a te tangata whenua taketake o te koraha o Kalahari e whaiwhai haere ana i te kudu i roto i nga tuuturu o te koraha.
Na a rātau ritenga, ka whakaahuatia e nga mahi a Hana nga take mo nga peita ana tahito.
Na Jamie Uys te kiriata i whakarite, i hoki mai ki San i te tekau tau i muri mai me The Gods Must Be Crazy, he mea rongonui na te ao nui.
Ko Hemi A. Michener Te Kawenata (1980), he mahi kōrero i waenganui i Awherika ki te Tonga.
Ko te pukapuka Mating a Norman Rush i te tau 1991 e whakaatu ana i tetahi puni o Basarwa e tata ana ki te taone nui o Botswana kei reira te mahi matua.
I te tau 2007, ka whakaputaina e Rawiri Kirimana te Manawa Rewera.
Ko te kaipārehe o te kaipūineine o te Kāo.
Ko nga Tāngata Tiamana he rōpū kōrero hītori o nga tāngata e noho ana i Ūropi Ki Tūpāpaku, i Rākanikaina.
I ngā kōrerotanga o te wā o Rōmana, i ētahi wā e kīia ana ngā tāngata Tiamana he Tiamana, he tiamana tahito rānei, ahakoa he tokomaha nga pūkenga e whakaaro ana ki te wā hē tuarua, nā te mea e hua ana he tuakiri ki ngā Tiamana hōu.
Waihoki, ko ngā kaituhi Rōmana i whakaahua tuatahitia ngā tāngata Tiamana e tata ana ki te Rāhui o Rōmana i taua wā i whakatūria ai e te Kingi o Rōmana tōna mana i taua rohe.
Ko nga mahi a Roma ki te whakauru i te rohe nui i waenganui i Rhine me Elbe ka mutu i te takiwa o te 16 CE, i muri i te hinganga nui o Roma i te Pakanga o te Ngahere Teutoburg i te 9 CE.
I te rau tau tua3, ka whakanuia e te Goths kōrero Tiamana te Hipanga Pontic, i waho o Germania, a, i whakarewaina he rārangi haere moana ki ngā Balkana me Anatolia ki Kaiperu.
E whakaatu kē ana te huakanga i tētahi iwi matatini me te āhua o te ao whenua puta noa i te tiamana.
I te tikanga, kua kitea nga tāngata Tiamana he ture e whakataua ana e nga ariā o te tūtohutanga me te utu toto.
Tērā pea i tiria e nga tāngata kōrero Tiamana tahito tētahi tikanga whakatūturu noa, he āhuatanga ātaahua, ā muri ake ka tiritiri hoki nga tāngata Tiamana i te mātauranga mai i te Wā o te Hekenga.
Ahakoa ko te reo i puta mai i a ia, he take tautohe, he take o ngā take o te reo Tiamana, o te Waewae, o te Rātini, o te Illyrian.
Ahakoa tōna reo taketake, i tukuna atu te ingoa ki ngā Rōmana mā ngā tukuoro o Tatari.
Na te tawhito o mua, ko nga tāngata anake e tata ana ki te Rākoni, ko nga Franks, ā, i ētahi wā, ko te Alemanni, i huaina e ngā kaituhi Rātini, Kiriki rānei, ko Germani.
Ahakoa kāore ngā kaituhi Rōmana i whakakāhore i ngā tāngata-kōrero a Wawe, i te whakamahinga rānei o ngā tāngata Tiamana hei ingoa o tētahi iwi, i tēnei tikanga hōu, mā te whakamahi i te reo Tiamana hei paearu matua, i mārama ki te Germani hei iwi, he iwi rānei e hono ana ki te reo.
Ko ētahi o ngā pūāhua e ako ana i nga Wā Tuatahi o Waenganui ināianei e whakahau ana i te pātai mēnā i kitea e nga tāngata Tiamana rā anō he kotahitanga iwi maori, ā, ko ētahi e tohu ana ki te tū i ngā reo Tiamana hei mea hītori e taea te whakamahi hei tautohu i ngā tāngata Tiamana, ahakoa rānei ka kite rātou i a rātau he Tiamana"."
Mo nga take penei, e kii ana a Goffart me karawhiu te kupu Tiamana kia pai te "tangata whenua" "engari ko te tikanga o te reo, me nga tohunga o te hitori penei i a Walter Pohl i karanga hoki kia karohia te kupu nei kia aata whakamaoritia ranei. "
I roto i te kōrero a Hiha, ko te āhuatanga tino mārama o te iwi Tiamana, i noho rātau ki te rāwhiti o Rākoni, anga atu ki Gaul i te taha ki te hauauru, he kitenga i mahia e ia ki ngā tūkinotanga hītori i roto i tana tuhituhi.
I ētahi wā i matakura a Taikini mehemea he Tāngata Tiamana, kāore rānei, e whakapuaki ana i tōna rangirua mo te Bastarnae, ko tāna e kī ana, he rite ki a Sarmatian, engari i kōrero pēnei i te Tiamana, mō te Osi me te Cotini, me te Aesti, he rite nei ki a Hupi engari he reo kē.
Ki te tonga, he pae aukati te rohe o Upper Danube.
Kai te mārama mēnā i kōrerotia e ēnei Tiamana tētahi reo Tiamana, ā, he tukuoroTanga kē pea rātau.
E haere tonu ana a Taitai ki te whakahua i nga iwi Tiamana i te taha ki te hauauru o te Rēnihi i te wā o te Emepara o mua, pēnei i a Tungri, i Nemete, i Ubii, i te Patia.
Nā te whakaawe i tēnei, ka whakamahia ēnei rōpū e toru i ētahi wā i roto i ngā kupu reo hou ake, e ngana ana ki te whakaahua i ngā wehenga o ngā reo Tiamana o muri ake.)
Ko Herminone, Hermiones rānei i roto, ko te Huvi, te Heruhuri, ko Kōrori, ko te Kerupū, ki a Pūrū.
I tetahi taha, ka tuhituhi a Taihauha i taua wahi kotahi e whakapono ana etahi, he rite tonu te taitamariki ki enei mea e toru, tae noa ki te Matiko, ko Ararivi, ko Suevi, ko Vanuilii"."
Ko Strabo, nāna i arotahi noa ki te tiamana i waenganui i Ōripi me Rēnihi, ā, kāore anō kia kōrero i nga tama a Mannus, ka whakawehea hoki ngā ingoa o Germani ehara nei i te Sueviana, i roto i ērā atu rōpū e rua, e pā ana ki ngā wehenga matua e toru: ngā iwi o Ngā Tiamana iti iho, pērā ki ngā Kerupua, Chatti, Gamabrivi, Chatrii, me te taha o te moana Tukutahi, Kauci, Caulci, Campsiani"."
I te wā o te reo O-Tiamana (2500–500 BCE), tērā tonu te āhua o te reo-tūturu e kitea tonutia ana e ngā paeroto reo e kitea tonutia ana i roto i te waeatanga me te rārangi kupu ā-Tiamana.
Tērā hoki te nui o ngā whakaawetanga i roto i ngā kupu mai i ngā reo o Pakihi, engari ko te nuinga o ēnei ā taihoa, ko te nuinga o ngā kupuhipa whakatārewa e puta mai ana i mua, i te wā rānei o te neke oro i whakaahuatia e te Ture o Grimm.
Ahakoa kua waihangatia te Proto-Germanic me te kore āhuatanga i runga i te aratuka whakatairite, ka tata tonu te mōhio, e kore rawa e rite ki te reo-tōtika.
Ko nga tuhinga runika pono o mua (Vimose comb, Øvre Stabu tao), i te timatanga o te whakauru ki Denmark o te ao nei, ka tuhia ki te punaha a Elder Futhark, no te haurua tuarua o te rautau 2nd CE.
Heoi anō, ko te hanumitanga o ngā oropuare Proto-Tiamana kāore i hainatia, i tautuhia ki ngā whakaritenga runic mai i ngā rau tau 4 me te 5 o ngā rau tau o te CE, e tautohu ana hoki kāore i taea e Takea Norse te tōmua hāngai o ngā waeatanga ā-Tiamana ki te Uru.
I te tōmuritanga o te rau tau 3, ka pēnei kē atu te reo Tiamana o te reo Tiamana ki te Uru o te aronga whakamutunga -z i pā mai i roto i te "residual" i te wāhanga o te raki-ki-te-māraki.
Ko te whakaurunga o ngā reo Burgundian me te Vanotea i roto i te rōpū Tiamana ki te Rāwhiti, ahakoa he āhua ōrite, kai te pōturi tonu nā te mea he mātauranga mōrearea rātau.
Ko te iwi he rōpū o ngā tangata e pā ana ki te tauwhitinga pāpori tohetohe, he rōpū pāpori nui rānei e tiritiri ana i te rohe mokowā, rohe pāpori rānei, i te nuinga o te wā e herea ana e te mana tōrangapū ōrite me ngā tūmanako ahurea ōrite.
Ka hangaia e nga hāngai ngā tauira whanonga mā te whakaaro he mea whakaae, he kore whakaae rānei ētahi mahi, whaikōrero rānei.
I te mea he mahi ngātahi te rōpū, ka taea e te iwi te whakaahei i ōna mema kia whai huarahi tērā pea he uaua i runga i te tangata; ko ngā huanga takitahi, pāpori (ngātahi) rānei ka taea te whakawātea, i te nuinga rānei o ngā take i kitea he īnaki.
I puta mai tēnei i te kupu Rātini ko ngā harakoa, i takea mai i te matewai o te naina (he hoa, he hoa, he hoa, he hoa"; adjectival puka pāpori) i whakamahia hei whakaahua i tētahi herenga, he tauwhitinga rānei i waenganui i ngā rōpū hoahoa, i te iti rawa rānei i te iwi ā iwi."
I te tau 1630, i whakamahia hei tohu toro ki "ngā tāngata e herea ana e te rohe me te ai i te noho tahi i roto i tētahi iwi i whakaritea."
Tērā pea he rerenga āhuatanga o te kaha tōrangapū o ēnei hanganga, i runga anō i te ahurea, i te wāwāhitanga, me ngā taiao hītori e tika ana kia tautohe ēnei rōpū.
Ko nga rōpū ā iwi i reira ētahi wāhanga iti o te rārangi pāpori me te mana ā iwi.
He tino pānga tēnei kunenga ā iwi ki nga tauira hapori.
I huri nga taone hei tūnga tāone me nga kāwanatanga iwi.
Ko te kōrero, ka taea hoki e nga mema o te iwi te ātete, te koati haere noa rānei i ngā mema o te iwi e takahi ana i ōna tikanga.
Ka whakarato tūnga ētahi iwi ki tētahi tangata, ki tētahi rōpū tāngata rānei ina mahia e taua tangata, tētahi rōpū rānei he mahi mīharo, e hiahiatia ana rānei.
Ahakoa kua whakatūria e te tangata he maha ngā momo rōpū iwi puta noa i te hītori, ka āhua whakarārangitia e nga mātauranga tikanga anō nga rōpū kē, e ai ki tētahi rōpū rerekē i roto i tētahi iwi te āheinga taurite ki ngā painga pēnei i ngā rawa, mana rānei.
Heoi anō, ko ētahi o ngā rōpū whakangahau me te huihuinga i ngā wāhi whai rawa maha (pērā i te tāngata tītaha) e noho ana i roto i ngā rōpū nui ake, ā, i hangaia he āhuatanga ā-iwi matatini pēnei i te rangatiratanga.
He āhua ōrite ngā tūnga i roto i te iwi, ā, ka tae atu nga whakataunga ki te kirimana ahuwhānui.
Kahore he rōpū tōrangapū e whai mana tūturu ana, ko te rangatira he tangata whakaawe noa iho, he kaiarahi; na reira, ko nga whakatōpūtanga ā iwi ehara i te kāwanatanga.
Notemea he tino whai tikanga rawa a rātau kai, ka taea e nga rōpū whakataka te tautoko i nga iwi whānui ake.
Hei tauira, ko ētahi iwi hei kaimahi mahi, hei hanga taonga mahi, hei rongoā, hei taonga mahi hua, hei taonga mahi, hei taonga hua.
I ētahi wā, ka whai mana ēnei whānau na roto i te nui o rātau rawa.
Kua motua, ka tahuna te otaota mohoao, a, ko te pungarehu e whakamahia ana hei mīti.
Ka hoki pea rātau ki te whenua taketake ētahi tau ā muri ake, ā, ka tīmata anō i te tukanga.
Kai runga te rahi o te iwi whānui o te kāinga ki te nui o te whenua e wātea ana mo te mahi pāmu; nā reira ka taea e ngā kāinga te ahu mai i te iti rawa o ngā tāngata e 30 ki te tau 2000.
Ko nga tohutohu hapori e whakamahi ana i te kīanga hurihanga ahuwhenua ki te whakapā atu ki ngā huringa hangarau i pā ki te 8,500 tau ki mua, i ahu atu ki te whakatō i ngā huawhenua me te whakatipu kararehe pāmu.
He nui ake nga waeine o te rōpū pāpori i puta ki nga rōpū iwa nei.
Heoi anō, i te pai ake o nga toa kai, ā, ka whai wāhine i ngā tūranga iti ake i te whakarato kai mā te whānau, ka tino whakaiti rātou ki ngā tāngata.
I puta mai anō he pūnaha rangatira whai tūnga pāpori tiketike.
Ko te hōrotanga a Uropi ki nga Amerika i whai take kotahi mo te whakawhanaketanga o te pūmatuatanga.
I puta tēnei i ētahi nuitanga nui ake o te māiatanga.
Nā tēnei nuinga atu, na nga huringa katoa i kōrerorerotia i mua i te hurihanga o te wā kāinga ka puaki kē atu.
Heoi anō, ka nui ake te whakatōpūtanga i mua.
I te wā o te wā mātāwā, he iti rawa ngā whenua o Ūropi ki te Uru, o Amerika ki te Raki, o Ahitereiria, me Aotearoa.
Ko tētahi o nga wāhi whai painga o te Ūropi te rōpū mōhiohio.
Ko ētahi o ngā pānga ā-whare, ngaio, me ngā pūtaiao e whakaahua ana he rōpū whenua rātau (hei tauira, te American Mathematical Society, the American Mathematical Society of Civil Engineers, te King Society rānei).
Ko te hāpori he wae pāpori (he rōpū mea ora) he āhuatanga ngātahi, pēnei i ngā tikanga, i te hāhi, i ngā uara, i ngā tikanga, i te tuakiri rānei.
I tēnei āhuatanga e ōrite ana ki te ariā o tētahi kāinga tawhito - ahakoa he nehi, he kāinga, he taone, he taone rānei.
Ko te nuinga o ngā hanganga anō o ngā hāpori pāpori e whakawhirinaki ana ki te kaupapa o te whakawhitinga pāpori i mua, i herea e te tawhiti ōkiko.
Kāore he rōpū noa iho tētahi, ko tētahi rānei.
Ko te whakawhanaungatanga e whakaawetia ana e te nuinga o te whānau, nā reira e ako tuatahitia ana ngā tamariki i ngā tikanga ā iwi.
Me mārama ngā tohutohu whanaketanga hapori me pēhea te mahi ki ētahi tangata me te pānga ki ngā tūnga hapori i roto i te horopaki o ngā rōpū pāpori nui ake.
I te whakawhitinga i waenganui i te whanaketanga hapori me te hanganga hapori, he maha ngā papatono me ngā whakahaere me ngā utauta whanaketanga hapori.
Mahue: Ka neke atu i ngā whakamātau ki te whakatika, ki te whakaora, ki te tahuri i te wāhanga o te huaki, ina taea e te katoa te whakaae ki tō rātou tūpāpaku me te pakarutanga, ngātahi ki te tangata.
Ko ngā momo taketake e toru o ngā whakaritenga hapori he whakarite pāpāho, he whakarite pūtake pāpori, he whakaritenga whakarite hapori ā-whare,"" (e kīia ana hoki ko "te whakarite hapori ā-whānui,"" he tauira he whakaritenga hapori ā-whakapono, he Whakaritenga Hapori ā-Whakaminenga rānei)."
I tīkina i te: 22 o Pipiri, 2008.
Ka taea e te whakarite hapori te arotahi ki ētahi atu i te whakatau noa iho i ngā take tauwhāiti.
Mā aua rōpū e whakangārahi, e whakahau ana i te whakatau whakaaro me te arotahi ki te hauora āhuwhānui o te iwi i tua atu i tētahi rōpū huamoni tauwhāiti.
Hapori ā-tuakiri: awhe mai i te kōaro ā-rohe, i te ahurea ā-iwi, iwi, i ngā hapori, i ngā tikanga maha, i ngā kiritanga maha rānei, i ngā tikanga ā iwi o te ao o tēnei rā.
Ko ngā pātahitanga i waenga i ngā mema o tētahi hapori mariko ka arotahi ki te whakawhitinga mōhiohio mō ngā kaupapa whāiti.
Ko nga pūāhua o te tikanga tangata he pūāhua tangata", tangata rānei."
Ko te tikanga, ko nga tikanga o te tangata e ako ana i nga tikanga paetata, mā ō rātou hītori, ō rātou pukapuka, waiata, me ngā toi, me te whākaha ki te mārama i ia tangata, i ngā takahanga, i ngā wā rānei.
Kaore e ngāwari noa iho te uru o te tikanga tangata (pēnei i ētahi āpure hītori) ki tētahi o ēnei kāwai, me ngā peka rerekē o te tikanga me te tā i tētahi, i ētahi rānei o ēnei rohe.
Ko te kupu anthropos (άνθρωπος) no te kupu Kariki mō "te tangata, "tangata", "tangata"rānei"."
Ko te tikanga o tēnei, ahakoa he rōpū tangata whenua noa iho te rongoā, ka mau tonu rātou ki ngā aronga koiora, āhuatanga reo, whai tikanga whai tikanga o tētahi raruraru.
Ko te whai i te tikanga o te mātauranga e whai ana i te nuinga o nga tikanga kia whakamātautau i tētahi tāngata, mā te whakamahi i ngā raraunga rongoāropi, mā te mōhiotanga mātauranga, me te āhuatanga reo i te taha o nga tikanga o nāianei.
Ka taea te whakaaro i te huakanga he pūtaiao pāpori me tētahi peka o ngā tikanga tangata.
He nui tonu te whakaaro mo te rua tekau ma rua tekau ma rua tekau mā rua tekau mā rua o nga rau, kua tukua ki te whakamātautau i te reo, ki te pātai hoki, me te mea i kiia e Wittgenstein, he nui o a tatou whakaaro hinengaro e whiwhi ana i nga kupu e whakamahia ana e tātau; Kua hōparatia e te ariā tuhituhi nga āhuahira pakiwaitara, ā-whanaunga, me te raupapa i ngā āhuahira reo; Kua ako te hunga reo hītori ki te whanaketanga o nga reo puta noa i te wā.
Kua whakaritea hei "pūnaha ture, hei "ariā whakamāori"" kia taea ai te tika, hei "mana"" ki te pāpāho i ngā painga o te iwi, hei "whakahau hoki a te rangatiratanga, i pūruatia e te tuma o te mana"."
He tōrangapū nga ture, notemea na nga kaikaikame i waihanga rātau.
I rite ki ta Āmianuere Kant i kī ai, I wehea te whakaaro hinengaro Kariki Onamata kia toru ngā pūtaiao: te ahupūngao, te tikanga, me te arorau.")"
Kāhore he waehere tapae tika o te hina, o Tōname me ētahi atu māori, hāhi māori rānei.
E tohu ana ngā pūnaha whakapono i tētahi tauira arorau kāore i te whakaaturia e ngā hāhi nā ā rātou whakahēnga ā roto, kāore he whakaaturanga, me ngā kē. .
E tika ana kia mōhio rātau ki te raruraru tangata.
Ko nga hāhi tauhou he hāhi Hūhuki, he hina, he tangata whenua, he māoritanga rānei.
Ki te kore nga hāhi tūturu e whakatau ana i nga raruraru hou, ka puta mai nga hāhi hou.
E tautokona ana hoki te mahi toi e nga kaimahi i ngā āpure whai pānga, pērā ki te tuhi waiata me te kāhui whāriki.
E kiia nei ko te toi mahinga.
Ka whakamahia hoki te kanikani hei whakaahua i ngā tikanga o te whakawhiti kōrero ā-waha (tirohia te reo tinana) i waenganui i te tangata, i te kararehe rānei (kanikani pī, kanikani whāinga), me te nekeneke i ngā mea tānea (ko nga rau e kanikani ana i te hau).
I roto i nga toi pākana me ngā toi Kotahi o nga Wā o Waenganui, e tohe ana te mana o te whare karakia ki te kīanga o te rārangi tohutohu, ehara hoki i te pono rawa.
Ko tētahi āhuatanga o tēnei kāhua, ko te tae paetata e tautuhia nuitia ana e te whakahuahua (he ōrite o nāianei ko te atahanga).
Ko te nuinga o te wā, ko te mahi tohu i runga i te mata mā te hoatu pēhi mai i tētahi utauta, te neke rānei i tētahi utauta puta noa i te mata.
Heoi anō, ina whakamahia ki tētahi āhuatanga tohunga, ko te tikanga o te whakamahinga o tēnei ngohe i roto i te pahekotanga ki te tātuhi, te hanganga me ētahi atu whakaaro rerehua hei whakakite i te whāinga whakahuahua me te ariā o te tohunga.
E pātahi ana te pango ki te tangi i te Uru, engari ki ētahi atu wāhi mā pea.
Hei tauira, ka taea e "te kupu "whero", te hīpoki i te whānui o ngā rerekētanga i runga i te whero mā o te tūāwhiorangi."
I tīmata tēnei i te whatianga, a, kaore i te whakaahua pākaha.
Nā reira, he tokomaha e whakapau i ngā tau tata nei i muri i te whakatauranga mō te whakatau he aha ā muri ake, nā reira he iti iho nga moni whiwhinga i te tīmatanga o to rātau mahi; i tēnei wā, he tere ake te urunga ki te mākete mahi o nga mākete mahi o nga mākete mahi.
Heoi anō, ka whakaaturia anō e te whakaaturanga pirihitini kai te whiwhi tonu ngā tohu tangata i te nui ake o ngā moni whiwhi i te hunga mahi kaore he mātauranga ā-pou, ā, he taumata koa mahi e ōrite ana ki o rātau hoa noho mai i ētahi atu pārae.
He ōrautanga o te momo waeine i whakawhiwhia, engari, te āhua nei kua whakapeka nga tikanga tangata.
E tohu ana te pūteatanga a te hautahi i te hautanga iti ake o te pūtea mo te pūteatanga tangata i ētahi atu āpure pēnei i te STEM, te rongoā rānei.
I whakapuaki rātau i tēnei māramatanga, he pānga ōrite te tāngata āhua rite mai i ngā āhuatanga ahurea ōrite, ā, ka whakarato i tētahi āhuatanga ā iwi ā i mua i te taumahatanga.
I tua atu i tōna tono pāpori, he utauta hira te mōhiotanga kōrero i roto i te (māramatanga anō) o te tikanga mārama i roto i te hītori, ahurea me ngā pukapuka.
Kua raruraru te āhua o te āhua o te whakaakoranga ā-tangata i runga i nga pātai o te tikanga, te māiatanga, me te mana tika.
Tērā anō, ka taea te whiwhi i ngā whakaaro nui, ahakoa ko te hua o te whakangungu tangata, ka taea te whiwhi ki ētahi atu horopaki.
Ko tēnā rerekētanga e taumira ana ki te nui haere o te whakawāteatanga o te wā wātea me ngā whakamanatanga inamata o te ahurea ki te Uru; nā reira ka tutuki i ngā whakaritenga a Jürgen Habermas mo te ātete i te tūnga pāpori me te raruraru hautahitanga o ngā wāhi kāore i tika i mua mō tētahi mahi i roto i te rohe tūmatanui.
Ahakoa he maha nga tikanga tangata i runga i nga tohenga ki nga tāngata i karangatia e ētahi i roto i te pūtaiao tūtohu kia hoki mai rātau.
He pai te mōhio ki te hītori o te whakaaro."
Ko te whakawhitiwhitinga (mai i te whakakotahitanga Rātini, ko te tikanga "hei tiritiri, ko ""te pātahi rānei ki") "he whakautu kitea ki ngā wehenga mamae i waenganui i a ia anō me ētahi atu, tūmataiti, tūmatanui, whakaaro hoki roto me te kupu whakawaho.""
Hanganga karere (tētahi whakamāmātanga ā-roto, hangarau rānei ki ngā mea tino tika hei whakapuaki).
Ko ngā pūtake turituri pēnei i ngā tōpana tūturu me ētahi take, ka tīmata te mahinga tangata (māna tonu me te pokanoa) ki te whakapakari i te kounga o ngā tohu mai i te kaituku ki tētahi, ētahi rānei o ngā pūwhiwhi.
Te whakamārama me te āta mōhio ki te karere taketake i whakaarotia.
Ko nga tauira o te whāinga ko nga nekeneke ā-ringa, pēnei i te rūrū i te ringa, i te kemo rānei, me te kore noa iho, pēnei i te werawera.
Waihoki, kei roto i ngā kuputuhi tuhituhi ko ngā huānga pēnei i te kāhua tuhi ā-ringa, te whakaritenga mokowā o ngā kupu me te whakamahinga o ngā koiora hei tuku i te aronga.
Ko ētahi o ngā taumahi o te whakawhiti kōrero pūkore i te tangata, ko te whakahaere, te whakaahua, te whakapakari me te whakahōu, te whakakapi, te whakahaere, me te whakahē i te karere tuhituhi.
Hei whakawhitiwhiti kōrero katoa, me whakauru katoa ngā hongere kāore i te ā-waha pēnei i te tinana, te kanohi, te reo, te āhua, te pā, te tawhiti, te wā, me ētahi atu tōpana taiao i roto i te tauwhitinga kanohi.
"""Ka hanga ngā whanonga ā-waha i tētahi pūnaha reo arowhānui."""
I te wā o te tamarikitanga tangata, ka tino puta te akoranga reo i te nuinga o te wā o te tamarikitanga tangata.
Kāore i te tikanga kia rāhuitia ngā reo hanga pērā ki a E esperanto, ngā reo papatonotanga, me ngā tikanga pāngarau e rāhuitia ana ki ngā āhuatanga i tiria e ngā reo tangata.
Ko ngā āhuatanga reo e whakahaeretia ana e ngā ture.
He hāngai ki ngā whakaponotanga whai tikanga, e whakaarohia ana he reo waitohu o te ao (hei tauira, he reo Waitohu Amerika) he whakawhiti reo ā-waha nā te mea ko ō rātou kupu tohu, wetereo, me ētahi atu hanganga reo e noho ana i ngā taunahatanga e hiahiatia ana hei reo kōrero.
Ko te whakawhiti kōrero ko tētahi tukanga e tautapa ana, e whakawhiti ana hoki i roto i tētahi ngana ki te waihanga i te māramatanga tiritahi.
He hongere, ko ēhea tohu hei whakaurutau mō te tarenga.
He ūnga, ki hea tae mai ai te karere.
Kaore he whakaaetanga mō ngā take rerekē.
Kāore he whakaaetanga mō ngā horopaki āhuatanga.
He maha pea nga āhuatanga o ēnei mahi, ki tētahi o nga momo āhuatanga whakawhitiwhitinga.
Wetereo (ngā āhuatanga whai tikanga o ngā tohu me ngā tohu).
I runga anō i ēnei ngohengohe nei, ka tono whakaaro a Barn ake (2008) ki tētahi momo tauwhitinga whakawhitiwhitinga.
Ko tēnei āhuatanga tuarua o te whakawhiti kōrero, e kiia nei ko te tauira, te tirohanga hanga rānei, ka arotahi ki te whakawhitiwhiti kōrero a te tangata hei āhuatanga whakaaro o te āhuatanga o te whakamāoritanga o te karere.
Ka rerekē pea ngā tātari whaiaro o te kaituku me ngā tātari whaiaro o te kaituku i runga anō i ngā tikanga rerekē o te rohe, i ngā ahurea, i te ira tangata rānei; ā, ka huri pea i te tikanga o ngā ihirangi karere.
Ahakoa he mea pēnei i ngā pukapuka waehere i whakarārangitia e te tauira, kāore he wāhi e whakaaturia ana i roto i te tauira, e waihanga ana i ngā uauatanga whakahuatau maha.
Ka taea e ngā kamupene whai rauemi whāiti te whakauru ki ētahi o ēnei ngohe anake, ā, ka whakamahia pea e ngā umanga nui ake ētahi tūāwhitinga whakawhiti kōrero.
Ko te taiao mōhiohio te rōpūtanga o ngā tangata, ngā umanga, me ngā pūnaha e kohikohi, e hāereere ana, e whakahaere, e mahi mōhiohio ana rānei.
E rua ngā momo karere e tukuna ana i roto i te whakawhitinga ā-waha: he karere ihirangi me tētahi karere whai pānga.
Ko tēnei te akoranga me pēhea e whakamāramatia ai e ia ngā mea rerekē me ngā whanonga.
Mā te whakawhitiwhiti kōrero tuwhera me te pono e waihanga i tētahi hau e āhei ai ngā mema whānau ki te whakapuaki i ā rātou rerekētanga me te aroha me te whakamihi ki a rātau anō.
Ka hangaia e nga kaikaupapa nga kaupapa kia mārama ki nga āhuatanga whakawhitiwhiti.
Kei roto hoki i tēnei kōrero te kore kōrero "tika-mātau, e taka ana ina whakamahi te tangata i ngā kupu rangirua, kupu ā-ture matatini rānei, ngā kupu rongoā rānei, ngā whakaahuatanga rānei o tētahi āhuatanga, taiao rānei kāore i te mārama ki te kaiwhiwhi."
Waihoki, ko ngā taputapu iti, tawhito rānei, otirā ko te rahunga o te whakahaere hei whakauru i te hangarau hou, ka raruraru hoki pea.
Tērā pea kei roto i ngā tauira tētahi hanganga whakahaere kāore i te mārama, nō reira ka whakapōrearea te mōhio ki a wai hei whakawhiti kōrero.
He pai ake mēnā ka karo aua kupu mā te whakamahi i ngā whirinoa ina taea.
Ahakoa rā, na te rangahau i whakawhiti kōrero, ka taea e te mōrearea te tuku iho i te tikanga tika ki te rangahau ina ngohengohe te tūtohutanga.
Ko te wā e whakaatu ana te kaituku i tētahi whakaaro, kupu rānei, engari he rerekē te tikanga o te kaituku.
Nā tēnei, i puta ai tētahi huringa mōhio i roto i te whakawhitiwhiti kōrero a ngā whakatupuranga tamariki me te kite i tō rātou ake mahinga hei whakawhitiwhiti me te tūhono ki ētahi atu.
Ko te wehi ki te whakawātea - he take nui tēnei e ārai ana i te whakawhitiwhitinga pai.
E kore tēnei e whakakaha anake i tō whakaaro, engari ka whakapai ake anō i tō reo me ō kupu.
Ma ētahi āhuatanga hoki ka uaua te whakawhiti kōrero.
Ko te tikanga o te ātetetanga ki te ngana ki te whakaiti i te turituri me te hē o ngā whakamāramatanga, ina pā ki te turituri te uara, te tikanga rānei o te tohu, i te aroaro rānei o ngā tikanga maha, e uaua ai te āhuatanga o te mahi.
Hei tauira: he rerekē ngā tikanga o ngā kupu, ngā kara me ngā tohu i roto i ngā ahurea rerekē.
E tohu ana te mōhio ki ngā āhuatanga ahurea o te whakawhiti kōrero ki te whai mōhiotanga ki ngā ahurea rerekē kia āhei ai te whakawhiti kōrero ki ngā tāngata whakawhiti ahurea.
Kei roto hoki ko ngā oro mai i te korokoro, ā, ka tino āwea ēnei mea e ngā rerekētanga ahurea puta noa i ngā taitapa.
He rerekē tēnei ariā i tētahi ahurea ki tētahi ahurea, he rerekē te mokowā e whakaaetia ana i ngā whenua rerekē.
Ko ētahi take e whakamārama ana i tēnei ariā, he tūtatari, he ngāngū me te hokinga o te wā o te whakawhitinga.
I ngā whenua rerekē, ka whakamahia aua tohu ā-ringa me ngā tūnga ōrite ki te tuku karere rerekē.
Ka whakawhitiwhiti pūtake ki ngā huakita rino, ki ngā kōhuahua, me ngā ngārara i roto i te oneone.
I roto i te whakarara, ka whakaputaina e rātou i ētahi atu pūrehurehu hai āwhina i ngā pirinoa e whakaeke ana i ēnei pāpiapia.
Na nga pūreiora i whakaoho te rauropi kararehe kia urupare i runga i tētahi āhuatanga motuhake, engari mēnā ehara aua rāpoi ngota ōrite i te wāhanga o ngā karere hangarau, kaore rātau e whakaoho i te mea hanga.
Mā te tīngāwai o te kōrero, ka kitea e te huakita te kiato o ngā pūtau, me te whakarite i te kīanga whakapapa.
Ko te mōhiohio, i tētahi āhuatanga ahuwhānui, e tukatuka ana, whakataetaetia ana, me ngā raraunga hanganga.
E pāhono ana te mōhiohio ki te raraunga.
Ka taea te tuku mōhiohio i te wā, mā te rokiroki raraunga, me te mokowā, mā te whakawhitiwhiti me te waeatanga.
Ka taea te whakawaehere i te mōhiohio ki ētahi momo puka mō te tarenga me te whakamāoritanga (hei tauira, ka whakawaeheretia pea te mōhiohio ki te raupapa tohu, ka tukuna rānei mā tētahi tohu).
He ōrite kōaro te maumahara ki te tūponotanga o te takanga.
Heoi anō, kei roto kē i te Rātini te kupu īnfōrmātiō o te ariā, ariā rānei, engari kāore e mārama ana te whānuitanga o te mōhiohio o te kupu Ingarihi.
I te reo Kariki hou, kei te whakamahia tonutia te kupu Πληροφορία i ia rā, ā, he ōrite te tikanga o te kupu mōhiohio i te reo Ingarihi.
I whakapumautia te mara e nga mahi a Harry Nyquist me Ralph Hartley i nga 1920, me Claude Shannon i nga tau 1940.
E whakarārangi ana te nui o te tūtohutanga e pā ana ki te uara o tētahi tāupe matapōkere, te putanga rānei o tētahi tukanga matapōkere.
Ko ngā āpure-roto hira o te apatoko mōhiohio ko te waehere pūtake, te ariā matatini, te ariā mōhiohio hātepe, me te haumarutanga whakaaro-mōhiohio.
I tana pukapuka i huaina ai e te kaioraora PūokoRau ko David B. Dusenbery ēnei tāuru take.
Hei whakaharatau, ko te tikanga kia kawea ngā mōhiohio e te āhuatanga ngoikore me kitea e ngā pūnaha pūoko motuhake me te whakakaha ake mā ngā tāuru pūngao i mua i te taumahinga ki te rauropi, pūnaha rānei.
Ko te raupapa o te karihioti he tauira e whakaawe ana i te whakatū me te whanaketanga o te rauropi, e kore e hiahiatia he hinengaro māhorahora.
Ki tētahi atu kōrero, ka taea te kī, ko te mōhiohio i roto i tēnei āhuatanga tētahi mea tērā pea ka kitea hei whakaaturanga, ahakoa kāore i waihangatia, i whakatakotohia rānei mō taua take.
Ahakoa kai te whakautu te mātauranga i runga i te tangata mōhiotia.
Koinei te ōrite mōhiohio e tata ana ki te 61 CD-ROM mō ia tangata i te 2007.
Mā te whakahaeretanga pūkete oro e whakarite ana kei te tiakina te taparenga o ngā pūkete i ngā wā katoa e hiahiatia ana.
Ka whakamāramatia e Beynon-" te ariā mōhiohio mata-maha i ngā tohu me ngā pūnaha tohu-tohu.
E āwangawanga ana ngā tohutohu ki te take o te whakawhiti kōrero.
Ki tētahi atu kupu, ko ngā tohutohu e hono ana i te reo ki te hohenga.
Ko te manahau te akoranga mo te tikanga o nga tohu - ko te pāhonotanga i waenganui i nga tohu me te whanonga.
Mā te wetereo hei wānanga rohe i te momo whakawhitiwhiti kōrero e ai ki ngā arorau me te wetereo o ngā pūnaha waitohu.
Ka whakamōhiotia e ia te ariā o ngā utu mōhiohio kuputuhi, ā, e tohutoro ana ki ngā mahi me kimi e te kaiwhakamahi o tētahi papakupu i te tuatahi, kātahi ka mārama ki te raraunga kia taea ai e rātou te hanga mōhiohio.
I roto i tētahi whakaaro whakawhitiwhiti kōrero, ka whakaaturia mā ngā karere ka noho ko ngā kohinga o ngā tohu ā-pātahi i tangohia mai i tētahi reo e mārama tahitia ana e ngā māngai e pā ana ki te whakawhiti kōrero.
Kei te āhua o te kitenga mōhiohio (kua whakapotohia hei InfoVis) i runga anō i te tātaitanga me te whakaaturanga mamati o te raraunga, ā, ka āwhina i ngā kaiwhakamahi i roto i te āhukahuka tauira me te haurapa mōrite.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka whakamahia te kōrero i roto i te mātauranga hapori me ētahi atu pūtaiao pāpori, i runga anō hoki i te whakaaro nui me te pūtaiao.
I te whakawhanaketanga o ngā rōpū tērā pea i runga i te whanaungatanga me ngā uara tiritiri, engari ko ngā rōpū whakangungu kē e whakaemi ana i ētahi atu kaupapa whakaaro ki ngā mea e āwhina ana ki te āhua o te āta noho, i te kaha ā-iwi rānei.
I whakamōhiotia e Durkheim nga ture pūkaha, pūwaro rānei hai wāhanga o tana ariā mo te whanaketanga o te iwi i te Wāhanga o Te Hunga Mahi i te Rōpū Mahi i te Iwi (1893).
Collins Papakupu Papaiao, p405-6.
Whakamāramatanga: he hononga pāpori i runga i te pākahatanga o te hunga ki a rātou i roto i nga rōpū hōhonu ake.
Ko ngā tohutohu o mua pēnei i a Socrates me Aristotle e kōrero ana i te taimautanga hei anga whanonga mārire nā te mea kia ora pai ai, me mahi ngā mahi me te whanonga i runga i te āhua o te whakakotahitanga ki te iwi.
Kei te tino āta whakaawetia te mahi a te pūtake o nga pūtake o te Rārangi Whakahau wāhi kōrero a Immanuel Kant.
Tata kore noa iho ngā akoranga mо̄ te takiwā kē.
I noho ko te hunga mātauranga taiwhanga rohe o mua, ko nga kaitautoko whakamutunga o te ariā whakawhaiwā.
Mai i te tau 1953 ki te 1966, he 270 miriona ngā wānanga ki ngā wānanga e 34 mō ngā akoranga rohe, reo hoki.
I whai ake ētahi atu papatono nui, hira hoki i a Ford.
Heoi anō, ko ētahi e whakahaua ana i runga i nga whare wānanga, ka tīmata ngā akoranga rohe ki te whakauru i tētahi rārangi take hinengaro whānui ake, hōhonu kē atu i te mea i kitea e ngā kaupapa whakahaere kāwanatanga, nā reira ehara i te āhua o Amerika.
Ētahi atu āpure rangahau ā-waha pēnei i ngā akoranga a te wahine, akoranga ira tangata, akoranga hauā, akoranga Pōrearea me ngā akoranga auau (tae atu ki ngā akoranga Awherika Amerikana, akoranga Amerikana, akoranga Reo Rēhia, ngā akoranga Otirano me ngā akoranga Maori o Amerika) engari i ētahi wā e whakaurua ana ki te kōrero.
Ko te pukapuka tauira (mai i te tauira kuhimua- mai i δῆμος Kariki Tawhito (dēmos) ko te tikanga 'ngā tāngata', me te -kauwhata mai i γράφω (graphō) ko te 'tuhi, whakaahuatanga, inenga rānei') ko te akoranga tatauranga o te iwi, otirā ko te tangata.
Ko ngā tatauranga tūroro he waihanga i te uho o te raraunga mō tētahi rōpū rongoā, pēnei i te mōhiohio whakapā tūroro me te pūkete rongoā tūroro.
Ko te kupu Pukapuka Kāhui kōrero e tohutoro ana ki te mātauranga whānuitanga o te iwi whānui.
I nga wā o waenganui, he nui te wā i whakaarotia e nga kaititiro Karaitiana ki te whakakāhore i nga ariā Māori mo te taupori.
Ko tētahi o ngā mātauranga taupori tuatahi i te wā o nāianei ko ngā Kitenga Tūturu, Tōrangapū hoki i Hangaia ki ngā Pire o te Tūturu (1662) nā Hoani Graunt, e pupuri ana i tētahi tēpu o mua.
Na tana mahi i āki ai a Tōta Rōpeti Malthus, ā, nāna i tuhituhi i te mutunga o te rau tau 18, ka wehi, ki te kore e takihia, ka āhua tūkinotia te tupu o te iwi whānui i te whanaketanga kai, ki te nui haere tonu te matekai me te pōharatanga (tirohia te parekura Mōroni).
Ko te tatauranga tērā atu aratuka hāngai noa ki te kohikohi raraunga taupori.
Ka whakahaeretia nga tātari i muri i te tatauranga o te tatauranga hai whakatau tata i te nui o te tatau, te tatau rānei.
Ko ētahi atu aratuka tōtika i roto i te pukapuka kōrero o nāianei ko te pātai ki ngā tāngata mō ngā tuahine, mātua, me ngā tamariki.
Kei roto hoki ko nga tauira o te mate tahuti (tae atu ki te teepu ora, nga tauira Gompertz, nga tauira morearea, nga tauira morearea a Cox, nga teepu ora whakaheke maha, nga whakapuru a Brass), te whakatipuranga (tauira Hernes, nga tauira a Coale-Trussell, nga tatauranga haeretanga o te reanga), te marena (Singulate Te tikanga i te Marena, Tauira Wharangi), hauātanga (te tikanga a Sullivan, tepu ora maha), nga matapae taupori (tauira Lee-Carter, te Leslie Matrix), me te kaha taupori (Keyfitz).
Ko ngā pānga kākanotanga pakeke, te tau o te whānautanga ora mō ia wāhine kotahi tekau mā 1,000 o ia whanaungatanga (te nuinga o te pakeke 15–19, 20-24 te aha, aha atu)
Ko te tūmanako mo te ora (tūmanako ora rānei), ko te maha o ngā tau e tūmanako ana tētahi tangata i tētahi pakeketanga e noho ana i tēnei wā.
Ko te iwi whānui ā-rangitahi, ko tētahi tangata e mau ana, e kore ana e hurihuri (ko te rerekētanga i waenganui i te mokatere whānautanga kōaro me te mokatere mate urutā, ko te kore).
Kia mōhio mai, ko te mokatere mate urutapu e pēnei i tautuhia ki runga, ka hoatu hoki ki te katoa o te iwi whānui, ka āhei te whakapae i te whakaaro māminga.
Ko ngā tangata e whakarerekē ana i ō rātou tapanga ā-iwi, tērā rānei ko ōna taunahatanga-a-iwi i roto i ngā tatauranga kāwanatanga, ka whakaarotia pea hei heke, hei neke rānei mai i tētahi wāhi iti ki tētahi atu.
Ka whakaatu te whika i tēnei wāhanga i ngā tatauranga un hou (2004) UN o te iwi whānuitanga o te ao ki te tau 2150 (whero = tiketike, karaka = waenga, kākāriki = iti).
Ko te tūpāpaku ko te mātauranga o ngā take, ngā hua, me te inenga o ngā tukanga e pā ana ki te mate ki nga mema o te iwi whānui.
Kaore ngā kaipānui hekenga e tautapa i ngā nekenekehanga 'hekenga' mehemea ka noho pūmau tonu.
I tēnei rā, he whānui te whakaakoranga pukapuka kāhui i roto i nga wānanga maha o te ao, e kawe ana i ngā ākonga whai whakaakoranga tuatahi i roto i ngā pūtaiao pāpori, tatauranga, matauranga hauora rānei.
I tēnei aronga, ka kitea e te tangata te pūtaiao mōhiohio hei urupare ki te whakaaro hangarau, ko te whakapono e tupu ana te hangarau "i runga i āna ake ture, e kitea ai tōna ake kaha, he mea whakatepe anake nā ngā rauemi rawa e wātea ana me te auahatanga o ōna kaiwhakawhanake.
E āwangawanga ana ki taua tinana mātauranga e pā ana ki te taketakenga, kohinga, whakahaere, rokiroki, tiki, whakamāoritanga, tarenga, whakawhiti, whakamahinga hoki o ngā mōhiohio.
He pono rawa atu tenei ka pa ana ki te kaupapa i hangaia e A. I. Mikhailov me etahi atu kaituhi a Soviet i waenganui o nga 1960.
Kei te puta ake ngā tikanga i runga anō i te āhua o ngā utauta e whakamahia ana hei tiki mōhiohio whai tikanga mai i ngā raraunga i ngā papatono akoranga Mātauranga.
Ka taea te whakamahi hei take mō ngā mea i roto i taua rohe, ā, ka whakamahia pea hei whakaahua i te rohe.
I runga i tā rātou mahi i ngā rauemi tā, engari kei te nui haere te whakamahinga o ēnei pūkenga ki ngā rauemi hiko, arokite, ororongo, mamati hoki.
I te ā-iwi, i puta mai te pūtaiao mōhiohio i te rau tau 19, tae noa ki te maha atu o ētahi atu whakatakotoranga pūtaiao pāpori.
I te 1731, i whakatuhia e Benjamin Franklin te Whare Pukapuka o te Whare Pukapuka o Philadelphia, te whare pukapuka tuatahi na tetahi roopu tangata whenua, i tere haere ki tua atu o nga pukapuka ka noho hei pokapu mo nga whakamatautau putaiao, me te whakaatu i nga whakaaturanga a te iwi puta noa i nga whakamatautau putaiao.
I te tau 1801, ka hangaia e Joseph Marie Jacquard he punaha kaari i whiua ki te whakahaere i nga mahi whatu raranga i France.
Tae rawa atu ki te 1843 I hangaia e Richard Hoe te perehitini hurihuri, ana i te tau 1844 ka tukuna e Samuel Morse te panui waea tuatahi.
I te tau 1860 i tu tetahi huihuinga ki Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule hei korerorero mo te taea o te whakatuu i tetahi whakaingoatanga nahanaha me te tika mo te matū.
No te tau e whai ake nei ka tīmata te Rōpū Ā iwi Ariki ki te tānga o tana Rarangi Pukapuka i Rōti.
He maha nga Kaituhi Paanui Putaiao e kii ana i a Paul Otlet me Henri La Fontaine hei papa mo te putaiao me te tiimata o te International Institute of Bibliography (IIB) i te 1895.
I whakapūmautia e nga kaitautapa tuhinga te āheitanga utilitarian o te hangarau me te mahi āhua ki ngā whāinga pāpori.
I whakatūria e Otlet me Rōfontaine ngā whakahaere maha i whakatapua ki te paerewa, pukapuka kāhui, ngā pāhonotanga aowhānui, nā reira, ko te mahi tahi o te ao whānui.
I roto i tēnei kohinga ngā rau pepa me ngā kāri kua tāpaetia ki ngā pouaka kāri kua whakaritea hei taupū aroākapa (arā, ko ngā mōhiohio rākeitanga puta noa i ngā rau ā-ao katoa) me tētahi ratonga tiki mōhiohio arumoni (i whakautua ai ngā tono tuhituhi mā te tārua i ngā mōhiohio hāngai mai i ngā kāri taupū).
Tērā anō, ka tīmata te muhani i ngā rohenga tūturu i roto i ngā tauwhiro, ā, he maha ngā pūkenga pūtaiao mōhiohio i honoa ki ētahi atu papatono.
I te tekau tau atu i 1980 ka puta mai ano etahi roopu paanga motuhake ki te whakautu i nga huringa.
Zhang, B., Semenov, A., Vos, M. me Veijlainen, J. (2014).
He tino whai mana te tiri mā te pāpāho pāpāhotanga pāpori kia tākaro pai" ai ngā kaiwhakaputa ki te hiahia kia tutuki."
Nā tēnei i kitea ai ēnei whatunga mō te kaha e whakaratoa ana e ia. "
He aha mō te tautapa mana me te rāhui i te urunga ki ngā kaiwhakamahi kāore i whakaaetia?
He whakahautū puta noa me te hapori mahi e arotahi ana ki te whakakotahi i ngā tikanga hoahoa me te hoahoa ki te whenua mamati.
Ka whakamahia ngā pūnaha tiki mōhiohio aunoa hei whakaiti i ngā mea kua tapaina "he nui rawa ngā mōhiohio."
Ka tīmata tētahi tukanga tiki mōhiohio inā tāuru te kaiwhakamahi i tētahi uiui ki roto i te pūnaha.
He ōrite kē pea ngā ahanoa maha ki te uiui, he rerekē pea ngā waeine o te whaitakenga.
Hei tauira, kei te āhua tonu o te taupānga ko ngā ahanoa raraunga, hei tauira, ngā tuhinga kuputuhi, atahanga, ororongo, mahere hinengaro, ataata rānei.
E pā ana te mōhiohio rapu ki, engari he rerekē i te tiki mōhiohio (IR).
Ka whakamahia te arorau hei hoatu i te āhua o ngā āhuatanga whakaaro he pēhea te hoatu i ngā taumahi whakaaro ki ngā tohu i roto i te pūnaha KK.
He whakapono noa iho hoki ko nga tūkino mōrearea pēnei i te hemokai me te waipuke he whakawhiunga tuatahi e mau ana i nga tohu o te riri o te Rangi ki te rangatira, nā reira i ētahi wā he tutukitanga i muri i ngā tini tūkinotanga i te kitenga o te iwi i ēnei whakararuraru he tohu kua mahue atu te Tononga o te Rangi.
He āhuatanga e rite ana te ariā ki te ariā o Ūropi ki te tika tapu o nga kingi; engari, ehara i te āhua o te ariā Pākehā, kaore e whakawhiwhia i tētahi tika tōtika hei ture.
I whakataraa te Tohutohu o te Rangi e nga kaipōnoho me ngā pūāhua o Haina hei tikanga ki te whakamoti i te whakamahinga o te hiko e te rangatira, i roto i tētahi pūnaha he torutoru ētahi atu taki.
Ko te tino mōhiotanga, i mau tonu te rangatiratanga mo tētahi wā tino nui i whakahaeretia ai e 31 kīngi tētahi wā roa e 17 whakatupuranga.
Ahakoa rā, i te haerenga o te wā, na te tūkinotanga a nga rangatira i ērā atu karaehe pāpori i ahu mai ki te pāwhānui me te tāpepe.
I waihangatia e rātau te Tononga o te Rangi hei whakamārama i to rātau tika ki te whakapae i te ture, ā, i whakaaro hoki ko te huarahi anake e pupuri ai i te tononga ko te whakahaere pai ki te titiro a te Rangi.
Heoi anō, hei whakangā mārie i ētahi o nga tangata whenua, ka whakaaetia e rātau ētahi o ngā tāngata Shang kia whakahaere tonu i o rātau kingitanga iti kia āta whakarite i ngā ture me ngā ture a Turaki.
I nui haere hoki ratou i roto i te hanga, i honoa nei ki to ratou kitenga i te whakaterenga o te rangi, i meinga ai ratou hei kaiwhakahaere tino pai mo ratou.
Ko te nuinga o ēnei mahi he kōrero mo te kauneketanga me te mahi tōrangapū o te rangatiratanga.
Na a rātau mahi i whakamōhio te hiranga o te karaehe whakahaere, o te whakaaro, me to rāua pātahitanga ki te karaehe o raro ake.
I roto i ēnei takiwā ko nga kaiwhakahaere i whakatūria e te kāwanatanga, ko te tuatahi, me mau tonu to rātau pūmau ki te kāwanatanga matua o roto.
A, no te hekenga iho o te mana o te rangatira o Piri, ka horoia e te Rohe o Qin, i whakapono nei kua ngoikore te Piri, kua he hoki ta ratou ture.
I te wā o tēnei whakahōutanga, ka mahia ngā huringa whakahaere, ā, i hangaia he pūnaha whakamanatanga, e kī ana he tino nui rawa te ture ki ia tangata, tae atu ki nga rangatira.
Na te whakatūnga o te rangatiratanga o Hānana i tohu he wā nui i roto i te hītori o Haina i tohua e nga huringa nunui i roto i te hanganga tōrangapū o te whenua.
Ko te tikanga nui kia whakapumautia he whakatika mo te whakawhitinga o te Tohutohu o te Rangi na roto i enei puni e rima, a ko te tikanga ki te rangatiratanga o te Waiata.
I pupuri hoki rātau i ētahi atu rohe nui atu i ētahi atu o ērā atu kōrero Hainamana i te tonga.
He pū whakamā tino nui te whanonga kino o Whira Mā, a Te Ariki o Tuarā, a, koia i pērā ai te pēhi ki te whakakāhore i a rātau i te Tohutohu.
Heoi anō, ko Kublai Kani anake te rangatira tāhae i tana whakaputanga i te Tononga o te Rangi i runga i te Hautanga o te Rangi mai i tana mahi hōia nunui, a, he wāhi hoki ia no te iwi o Khitan, me te tokomaha o ētahi atu i taua papamuri i te mea kāore i a rātau te tikanga me te ahurea ōrite ki o rātau hoariri Hainamana.
He tōrangapū anake mai i te tīmatanga ki te mutunga, he whakamātautau a te emepara ki te pupuri i tētahi mahi tika ki te Rangi.
Kaore te Mana o te Whakarihariha i whakawaeheretia ki roto i tētahi ture whai mana.
No te mea ko te toa te tangata e whakatau nei ko wai kua riro i a ia te Tononga o te Rangi, a, kua ngaro, e whakaaro ana ētahi o ngā pūāhua Hainamana he momo ture a Victor, e tino whakaahuatia ana i roto i te hainihi rongonui e ki ana "Kua meinga te toa hei kingi, kua meinga te rūpahu hei ture"" (Hainamana: "成者爲王,敗者爲寇")."
E kiia ana hoki ko te rangatiratanga o Hira kia whakaaetia te Tohutohu o te Rangi, engari ko ngā pukapuka tuatahi no hoia mai i te Rohe o Hohia, nāna i hanga te Tononga o te Rangi hei arikitanga matatū.
Nō muri ake, nā ngā punanga nō Vietnam waenganui, i whāngai i te pūnaha pātene ā Rohe Hainamana i waihangatia ai tētahi pātene ā-rārangi Vietnam i Āhia ki te Tonga-mārō, i whakaahuatia i muri i te pūnaha Hainamana ki Āhia ki te Rāwhiti.
I ētahi wā o muri ake, i whakamārōtia tēnei āhuatanga nā te mea i kiia e te Whare Emepara kua heke iho ki te rārangi motuhake o te atua o te rā o Tiapanī, o Meerasu.
Ahakoa i muri i te Whakaoratanga Meiji i 1868, i te wā i whakahokia te emepara ki waenganui o nga tikanga tōrangapū, he iti rawa te mana o te torona, he iti noa iho te mana o te waiwai o Meiji.
Ko ngā mātauranga pāpāho he tauākī me te āpure akoranga e pā ana ki ngā ihirangi, hītori, me ngā pānga o ētahi atu pāpāho; koia anō, ko te pāpāho whānui.
Ko nga rangahau pāpāho i Ahitereiria i whakawhanakehia tuatahi hei waahi ako i nga whare wananga o Wikitoria i te timatanga o te tekau tau atu i 1960, me nga kura tuarua i waenganui o te tekau tau atu i 1960.
I roto i nga kura tuarua, i timata te whakaako i tetahi akoranga moata mo nga kiriata hei waahanga o te marautanga tuarua o Victorian i waenganui o te tekau tau atu i 1960.
Mai i tērā wā, ā, kai te noho tonu mai, he wae pakari o te VCE.
Te āhua nei kāore e whakaakona ana ngā akoranga pāpāho ki te āhua o New South Wales i te taumata tuarua.
He tohutohu Rongonui a Hāwhina Innis me Marshall McLuhan mo a rātau āwhina ki nga māra mātauranga pāpāho me nga āhuatanga tōrangapū i te rau tau e 20.
I hangaia e te Whare Wānanga o Carleton me te Whare Wānanga o Western Ontario, kotahi tekau mā rua, 1945 me te 1946, ngā papatono tauwhāiti, kura rānei.
I tēnei rā, e tono ana te nuinga o ngā whare wānanga i ngā tohu paetahi i roto i Ngā Akoranga Pāpāho me te Whakawhitiwhiti, ā, he tokomaha ngā pūkenga Kānata e āwhina ana ki te papamahi, i waenganui i a ia: Ko Ōrite Massumi (whakaaro ā-kaupapa, akoranga ahurea), Kim Sawti (akoranga ahurea, mana wahine, akoranga whakatupu), Carrie Rentschler (ariā mana wahine), me François Cooren
He mea noa te mea e pāpāho ana i ta tātau whakawhitinga ki te ao, ki ētahi atu tangata rānei.
E kī ana a McLuhan ko te "āhuatanga o te kongakongatanga ko te āhua o te hangarau mihini" i hangaia ai te whakarākeitanga o te mahi me te pāhonotanga tangata, ā, "ko te take o te hangarau aunoa he tauwhitiwhiti".
Ko te tikanga o te pāpāho katoa ko te "ihirangi" o tētahi mea waenga he mea anō i ngā wā katoa.
Mēnā ka whakamahia te rama hiko mo te pō whutupōro o te Paraire, ki te whakamārama rānei i tō tēpu, ka taea e koe te tautohe ko ēnei ngohe te ihirangi o te rama hiko.
Kāore anō kia whakamahia te rama hiko hei tātaki i tētahi ingoa parani e mōhiotia ana hei mea waenga.
Ka kaha te pānga o te waenga nā te mea ka hoatu ki tētahi atu pāpāho "ihirangi".
He iti te whai wāhitanga o te pāpāho wera, ā, he teitei te whai wāhi ki te pāpāho mātao.
Te Whare Wānanga Whakawhitiwhiti o Haina, e mōhiotia ana i mua ko te Whare Wānanga pāohotanga o Pāpāho, nā reira i hoki mai ki te tau 1954.
Ko te tātaritanga a Bourdieu he iti iho te mana motuhake, te wāteatanga rānei, i ta tātau e whakaaro ai.
I roto anō i te papa rārangi Akoranga Kiriata, i kaha rawa a Frankfurt rāua ko Berlin ki te whakatinanatanga o ngā tirohanga hōu i te nuku pāpāho atahanga.
Ko tētahi o ngā tānga tōmua o tēnei aronga hōu, he rōrahi i whakatikaina e Helmut Patuzer, Akoranga Tuhinga - Akoranga Pāpāho (Literaturwissenschaft - Medienwissenschaft), e whakarāpopoto ana i ngā whakaaturanga i te 1976 o Düongora Germanistentag.
Ko te Whare Wānanga o Tiamana mō te Kaupapahere Pāpāho me te Whakawhitinga, i whakatūria i te tau 2005 e te kaiako pāpāho, o Lutz Hachmeister, tētahi o ngā rōpū rangahau takitahi e whakatapua ana ki ngā take e pātata ana ki ngā kaupapahere pāpāho me ngā kaupapahere whakawhitiwhiti.
Ināianei ko Medienwissenschaften tētahi o ngā akoranga tino pai rawa o te akoranga i ngā whare wānanga i Tiamana, ā, he tokomaha ngā kaitono e mōhio ana mēnā mā te ako aunoa ka whai wāhi mahi i roto i ngā pouaka whakaata, i ētahi atu pāpāho rānei.
E tuku ana i tētahi hōtaka tāpiri e rima tau me tētahi hōtaka e rua tau i roto i te Pāpāho Hiko.
Ā, kei te arotahi ngā pūtaiao whakawhitiwhiti ki te āhua whakawhiti kōrero a te tangata, kia pāpāhotia, kāore rānei i te rongoā, ka whakawhāitihia e ngā akoranga pāpāho te whakawhiti kōrero ki te tauwhitinga pāpāho noa iho.
Ka taea te ako i ngā pūtaiao whakawhiti kōrero (he pārōnaki rānei) ki te Whare Wānanga o E ingoa wānanga, i te Whare Wānanga o Radpakd, te Whare Wānanga o Tilburg, Te Whare Wānanga o Tningen, University of Groningen, University of Twente, Te Whare Wānanga o Utres, TE Whare Wānanga
Ko te Whare Wānanga o Urupiapia te tari tawhito rawa atu.
Ināianei kua whakaakona ngā Akoranga Pāpāho puta noa i te UK.
Heoi anō, i ētahi wā ka aukati te arotahi o aua papatono i ētahi pāpāho—pikitia, te tānga pukapuka, ngā kēmu ataata, ērā atu mea.
He tino mihi tēnei ki te whiwhinga o Pareako Siva Vaidhyanathan, he kaiārahi kōrero mātauranga ahurea, pāpāho hoki, tae atu ki te KaupapaHere Pāpāho me te Rūnanga Whanonga Take Tuatahi, i whakawhiwhia e te Tumuaki Whakahaere Matua o Waka Ventures me UVA pākehā o David Verklin.
Ko te tikanga o tētahi mātauranga pāpāhotanga matua i Radford, kei te whāinga tonu te tangata ki te tuhitakataka, te pāohotanga, te pānuitanga, te whakanao Tukutuku rānei.)
I whakatauritetia e Kīson he iwi tūwhera ki tāna i kī ko tētahi iwi kati, he tikanga ture kati, he whakapono, he hāhi rānei.
Soros, George, The Age of Fallibility,"" Public Affairs (2006)."
Na te ātaahua i āki i te mātauranga kia noho hei tōrangapū, ā, i kore e taea te whakangaromanga o te mātauranga i ngā whenua whānui.
I roto i te rōpū kati, e tohu ana ki tētahi mātauranga me te pono tūturu, ka tae ki te whakamātau i te kawenga o tētahi momo putanga pono.
I te mea he ngāwari noa iho te whakaaro o te pōtiti ki te rangirua, kāore e tika ana kia pai ake te mōhiotanga o te ao tōrangapū.
Heoi anō, kaore a popper i kitea te iwi tuwhera me te kāwanatanga ā iwi, i te mana pūmatua rānei, i tētahi rawa rānei o te hinengaro nui, engari i runga anō i tētahi hinengaro nui i te aronga o te tangata, i te aroaro o te rōpū ā iwi, ahakoa pēhea te momo.
Ko nga taiwhenua ture, he mea ā-ture ka whakataua hei mahi ki nga painga tūmatanui mā te whakarite i te mahi o te whakawa.
Hei tauira, kāore he kaimahi i Ontario e mahi i roto i te hokohoko e herea ana me te kore he mema i te Kāreti o Ontario o Trades.
Ki a Weber, ko te mātauranga o te iwi me te whanonga, a, me titiro atu ki te āhua o te whakawhitiwhitinga.
He māmā ake, he hāngai ake te kupu i te tītohunga ā-iwi" a Florian Znanie hahau "", i te mea ehara te tangata i te mahi pāpori i te ngoikore, engari he hohe, he hohe rānei."
Ka whakaarohia hoki tēnei he tikanga whirinoa ina mutu ngā hua tuarua.
Ki te kōwhiria e te tauira kia kauā e pai te mahi i te kāreti, e mōhio ana rātau he uaua te uru ki te kura ture, a, i te mutunga ka tae ki te whāinga o te noho rōia.
Kua whakawehea te uara pānga ki ngā tono me ngā tono rōpūiti.
He maha nga raruraru i puta i ēnei tono, a, kua whakamātauria te mana ā ture.
Ki te maha o ngā rōpū whakapono e tā ana ki a rāua, ka whai haumaru rātau, ā, ka tautokona e rātau ētahi wāhanga o te hunga whakapono.
E mōhiotia ana he kaha nga hāhi pākaha, e tupu ana i te Hononga o Amerika i tēnei wā, engari kai te whakapeka te hunga ohaoha.
Hohenga pānga (e mōhiotia ana hoki hei hohenga whakaaro): ngā mahi ka mahia nā te 'ngā āhuatanga o te tangata, hei whakapuaki i ngā whakaaro whaiaro.
I roto i te tauhohenga ātaahua kaore he tautāwhi, a, kaore he manawa nui.
Ki te kore e tutuki nga whakaaro tūpāpaku, tērā te pāwhā ā roto.
Ko te tauira noa, he whakaaro whāinga, he whakaaro whāiti.
I whakamātauria ēnei ariā e Ono e Aristotle, a, ko te kaupapa tonu o ngā kōrero maha.
E whakaarotia ana e ngā kaupapa ā-ringa ā-taiao ngā mahi a tētahi rōpū takitahi.
Mā te mahi i tēnei, ka whakataetae ngā kaiwhakarato, nā reira ka waihanga i te raupapa i roto i te āhua o te mahi whakahaere.
Ko te ariā kōwhiringa whakahau, ahakoa ka nui haere te whakakotahitanga e te kaupapa mātauranga, ka rerekē ia i nga āhuatanga moroiti.
Ngā mahi tawhito: ngā mahi e mahia ana nā tōna tikanga, nā te mea ka mahia tonutia ētahi āhuatanga mō ētahi āhuatanga.
Ko te tikanga he mahi e noho ana i waenganui i te mātauranga.
Ko te tikanga he rangatū o ngā hipanga kua ako āta akona, ā, i ētahi wā, kaore he mōhiotanga.
Ko te ariā mo te karaehe ā-karaehe a Cooley, ko tō tātau āhua e tipu ana i a tātau e titiro ana, e whakaaro ana ki ētahi atu, ki ētahi atu, ki ngā whakaaro hoki e whakaaro ana rātau ki a tātau mahi.
Ko te pūmatua pāpori ko ngā whatunga pātahitanga i waenganui i ngā tāngata e noho ana, e mahi ana i tētahi iwi, e taea ai e taua iwi te mahi tika"."
I te hāwhe tuatahi o te rau tau 19, i kite a de Tocqueville mō te oranga o Amerika, e āhua whakahuahua ana, e tautuhi ana i te pūmatua pāpori.
Ka whai painga te iwi i runga i te mahi tahitanga o ōna wāhanga katoa, ahakoa ka kitea e te tangata i roto i ana pānga te painga o te āwhina, te aroha, me te whakahoatanga i ōna hoa noho tata.
"I roto i ngā kupu a Hūna (1960:1): ""Ko te utu mo te pupuri i tētahi iwi e whakahau ana i te whakarerekētanga ahurea me te whakamātautau, kaore e urua te whakaaetanga ki tētahi taumata ahuwhānui ki te taumata takitahi, pāpori hoki."""
I roto i ngā tekau tau e whai ake nei, ka āta whakauru ēnei whakaata ki te whakawhanaketanga o te ariā pūmatua pāpori i nga tekau tau e whai ake nei.
I kii a Robert D. Putnam (1993) ma te whakapaipai hapori e pai ai te mahi tahi me te tautoko ngatahi i roto i nga hapori me nga iwi na reira ka whai rawa nui ki te patu i te nuinga o nga mate hapori kei roto i nga hapori hou, hei tauira mo nga mahi kino.
"He nui ake te huatau a Nan Lin mo te pūmatua pāpori: ""He pūtea penapena i roto i ngā pānga pāpori me te hokinga tūmanako ki te mākete."""
Ko te kupu pūmatua ka whakamahia e te tairitenga ki ētahi atu momo pūmatua ohaoha, i te mea he tautohe te pūmatua pāpori kia ōrite ngā painga (ahakoa kāore e taea te ine).
I arotakehia e Robison, Schmid, me Siles (2002) nga whakamaaramatanga rereke mo te whakapaipai hapori a ka whakatau ko te nuinga kaore i pai ki nga whakaritenga okawa o te whakamaaramatanga.
E whakatakoto ana rātau kia tautuhia te pū āporoi hei aroha: he tino pū āpori te āwhina o te tūmomo aroha o tētahi atu; Ko te hunga e aroha ana ki ētahi atu, e whakarato ana i te pū ā iwi pāpori.
E wehewehea ana hoki te pūmatua pāpori i te pūmatua pāpori o te mahi pāpori.
Ka waihangai te uara mō ngā tāngata kua tūhonotia, me ngā tirotiro hoki.""
Hei ki a Robert D. Putnam, ko te whakapaipai hapori e pa ana ki "hononga i waenga i te takitahi - nga hononga hapori me nga tikanga o te tauutuutu me te pono ka puta ake i a raatau." "
E kitea ana tēnei i roto i ngā taumata iti ake o te whakawhirinaki ki te kāwanatanga me te iti ake o ngā taumata uru ki te iwi.
E whakaaro ana hoki a Putnam he take taketake o te whakapeka i roto i te pūmatua pāpori, ko te tāurunga a te wāhine ki ngā kaimahi, e āhei ana ki te whakawhiti i ngā herenga wā e tautāwhi ana i te whakauru ā iwi pēnei i nga pāhonotanga mātua-kaiako.
E kii ana a Fukuyama ahakoa te painga o te whakapaipai hapori hei whanaketanga, ka utaina he utu ki ngā mema-roopu kaore he hua e puta mo te oranga toko i te iwi.
Ko tēnei ahu e arotahi ana ki ngā painga i takea mai i te whiringahora o te kaitapere, i te takitahi, i te whatunga rānei.
Ka tino whakaahuatia tēnei mā te whakawhirinaki ki ētahi atu me ā rātou mahi tahi me te kitenga o tētahi tangata i roto i tētahi whatunga.
Ko nga rangahau a Sheri Berman me Dylan Riley, me nga tohunga ohaoha a Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, me Hans-Joachim Voth, i honoa nga hononga taangata ki te tipu ake o nga nekehanga fascist.
Ko nga hua tōraro o te pūmatua pāpori e pāhono ana ki te hononga o te mata-ā-mata.
Ka āhei te hono me te ārai i te pūmatua pāpori te mahi tahi ki te mahi tika, mēnā e tautika ana, ka taea rānei e rātou te mahi ki a rāua anō.
Mā te whakakaha i ngā here insular ka puta ki te maha o ngā pānga pēnei i te whakawāteatanga iwi, i te whakangātahitanga pāpori rānei.
"Ka makaia e nga Tiamana ratou ki roto i a rātau karapu, ngā pāhono tūroro, me ngā whakahaere ngaio, i nga rahunga o te kāwanatanga ā iwi me ngā rōpū tōrangapū, nā reira, mā te āwhina ki te whakararo i te Whenua o Tauari me te whakangāwari i te pikinga ake o Hītara."""
I tino hurihuri rātau i te Whenua o Hēmoa.
Ko Robert Putnam, i roto i ana mahi i muri mai, e kii ana ko te whakapaipai hapori, me te tipu haere o te whirinaki o te iwi whanui kua aukatihia e te manene me te piki haere o ngā momo iwi i roto i ngā hapori.
Na te kore noa iho o te ngākau pono i puta atu ai ki te tangata e neke atu ana i a rātau rōpū me ō rātou pānga tino tata, i waihanga i tētahi iwi ngota.
Ka taea te uru atu ki te pūmatua tangata, he rauemi tūmataiti, mā ngā mea i whakaemitia e te whakatipuranga o mua ma te pūmatua pāpori.
Ahakoa e kore rawa a Pītara e kōrero pono ki a Pierre Bourdieu i tana kōrero, ka rite tonu tēnei ki te tautohe a Bourdieu i roto i te Tāruatanga i roto i te mātauranga, i te iwi me te ahurea.
Na reira, ko te pūhara pāpori, e whakaraupapa ana i te tangata ki te ora ā iwi, kua whakawaia rātau.
Hai whakaahua i tēnei, e whakaaro ana tātau e hiahia ana tētahi tangata kia pai ake tōna wāhi i roto i te iwi.
Kai te Tika te Ariā o te Rōpū Tūmatanui?
Ko nga tauira noa, ko nga rōpū hara he waihanga i te pū matua pāpori, i te wā e hanga ana ngā pūmatua me ngā karapu peihana (nā reira ko te taitara, pērā i te tangi a Putnam ki to rātau whakapeka) ka hanga i te pū matua whakawhāiti.
Ka hoatu hoki e Aldrich ngā whakaaro o te pū ā iwi whānui ki nga tikanga take o te whakaora kino, ka kōrerorerotia ngā take e āwhina ana, e whakararuraru ana rānei i te whakaora, pēnei i te nui o te tūkino, te kiato o te iwi whānui, te kounga o te kāwanatanga me te āwhina.
Ki te pēnei te whakaaro o nga tāngata e ora ana i tō rātau oranga he tikanga ēnei no te rōpū iwi, ā, ka taea e rātau te ora te āwangawanga, te tamariki, me te whiwhi aroha mēnā e hiahiatia ana.
Ko ngā āhuatanga katoa o te "pūmatua" he mea whai take anake a Mēkā i te tangata pōti, ā, i whakamātauria e ia te take o te mahi i roto i te iwi pōti, hei karaehe i whakaritea e te tangata kia hokona to ratou mana mahi, no te mea i kore i a rātou te pūtea nui, ahakoa he aha te kupu, hei mahi kē.
E kīia ana e nga tauranga te koha o tētahi mōhiotanga ki tētahi mema o te rōpū iwi kotahi hei tauira mo tēnei.
Ko te here me te whakapiri i ngā tauine-roto e marohi ana, kua whakaaetia e neke atu i ngā tuhipānui pūkenga 300.
Heoi anō, kāore he huarahi ine nui hei whakatau i te taumata kohurutanga, engari he kohinga tauira whatunga pāpori i whakamahia e ngā kairapu i ngā nuinga o nga tau hei whakahaere i te pūmatua pāpori.
Ko ngā rōpū whai mema teitei ake (pēnei i ngā rōpū tōrangapū) he nui ake ngā tono ki te nui o te pūmatua i ngā rōpū whai mematanga iti iho, ahakoa he maha ngā rōpū whai mema iti (pēnei i ngā hapori) e tāpiri tonu ana kia hira.
Ko te pānga o te rōpū ki te toenga o te iwi, he pānga hoki ki te pū o te iwi pāpori, engari i runga anō i tētahi āhua anō.
I te mōhiotanga e kore pea tētahi e āhei ki te whakaawe i te aroha o ētahi atu, ka mahi pea ngā tangata e rapu ana i a rātou hai whakanui i tō rātou aroha ki ētahi atu, ki ngā umanga rānei e whakaaturia ana e rātau.
E ai ki ngā kaituhi pēnei i a Ruzera (1992), Awhenaini (2002), Mekena, Stolle > > (1997), me Īkina, nā te rōpū kāinga, te wāhanga tuatoru rānei, ka taea e ngā tāngata te whakatū me te pupuri i ngā whatunga whanaunga pānga.
Ehara i te mea he mana tuhinga anake te iwi ā iwi hei whakaputa i ngā pūtake pāpori, e ai ki ngā Wāhanga Tuatoru o Raoanō (2001), kāore e puta te pūmatua pāpori ki tētahi atu whakaaro i raro i ngā take e whakahohe ana, i te hunga rānei e whakamatau ana i te tupunga o te wāhanga tuatoru.
Ko te whāinga kia whakahōutia anō ērā i whakangārahu mai i ngā utu o te pūnaha o te ohanga ki roto ki "te hapori."
E whakaae ana a Alessandrini, e kii ana, "i Ahitereiria, kua whakahoutia te neo-liberalism hei whakaaro whaahuatanga ohaoha, aa, i tautuhia e etahi o nga tohunga korero me nga kai korero he morearea ki te hapori i te nuinga o te waa na te whakamahi i nga mahi hapori. . "" "
I te whanaketanga o te ao, ko Ben Fine (2001) me John Harriss (2001) te tino whakahe i te koretake o te tango i te whakapaipai hapori hei kaupapa rongoa (whakatairanga i nga umanga hapori me nga NGO, hei tauira, hei kaihoko whanaketanga) mo nga koretake i hangaia na te whanaketanga ohaoha neoliberal.
Heoi anō, ko nga taumata teitei ake o te pūmatua pāpori ka nui ake te tautoko mo te kāwanatanga ā iwi.
Kia tūpato te arotakenga o ēnei take, ā, ko te tikanga kia kauā nga wāhine e pōti ki ngā taumata rite tonu ki te tāngata.
E whakarato ana te pūmatua pāpori i te nui o ngā rauemi me ngā whatunga e whakangārahi ana i te whakauru tōrangapū.
Ko te tikanga kia whakaritea e nga wāhine rātau i runga i ngā ara aroākapa iti iho, me te arotahi ki te waihanga i te whakaaro.
Hei tauira, ka whiwhi mōhiohio, moni, tautoko whanonga rānei e hiahiatia ana e ia te manaaki i te rapunga me te whakaora.
Tērā anō, ka āwhina hoki te pūmatua pāpori paetata ki te ārai i te hauora i waenganui i ngā tamariki me ngā taitama.
Ko ngā pātahitanga me ngā whatunga e pupuritia ana e te iwi iti o te iwi i roto i tētahi wāhi matawhenua, ā, ko te ōrautanga nui o ngā tangata e noho ana i te rōpū iwi kotahi, ka pai ake pea ngā hua hauora i te mea e tūmanakohia ana i runga anō i ētahi atu āhuatanga takitahi, paetata hoki.
Hei tauira, ko ngā kitenga o tētahi uiuinga i tukuna ki ngā tauira pakeke 13 ki te 18 tau i Huitene ka pāhonotia te pūmatua pāpori iti me te whirinaki pāpori iti ki ngā reti nui ake o ngā āhuatanga whakaako, te mamae pakeke me te mamaetanga.
I roto i te mātaitanga kotahi, ko ngā whakamahinga mōhiohio o te Ipurangi e hono tika ana ki te whakanaotanga a tētahi tangata o te pū whenua pāpori, ā, ko ngā whakamahinga whakangahau pāpori, i tōrarotia (ko ngā taumata tiketike ake o ēnei e whakamahi ana e hāngai ana ki ngā taumata iti rawa o te pū pāpori).
Ko te tikanga o tēnei ka taea e te tangata te tūhono tīpako me ētahi atu i runga anō i ngā painga e mōhiotia ana, me ngā papamuri.
Kei te haere tonu tēnei tohenga, ahakoa e whakaatu ana te tohu tōrunga i te pāhonotanga tōrunga i waenganui i te pūmatua pāpori me te Ipurangi.
Ka whakaaturia hoki e ngā rangahau o nā tata nei, i whakahaeretia i te 2006, he maha ngā whatunga whānui ake i te hunga e āhei ana ki te Ipurangi, kāore rānei.
E whakaatu ana ētahi atu rangahau e whakamahi ana ngā taitamariki i te Ipurangi hei mea tāpiri mō te whakawhitiwhiti kōrero, kaua e whakaae ki te whakakapi i te kōrero Ipurangi i te hoapā kanohi-ki-te-kanohi.
Ka whakahē rātau i a Mātara, nāna anake i whakamahi te tokomaha o ngā mātua i roto i te whānau, i aro kore i te pānga tē kitea o ētahi atu ahu kōpae pēnei i ngā kātuatua' me ngā momo whānau takitahi.
Na Morgan rāua ko Sorensen (1999) i whakahau tōtika i a Mīere mō te korenga o tētahi huarahi mōhiotanga hei whakamārama i te take i pai ake ai te mahi a ngā ākonga o ngā kura Katorika i ngā ākonga o te kura tūmatanui i runga i ngā whakamātautau paerewa o te whakatutukitanga.
Kua kitea, ahakoa ka taea e te pūmatua pāpori te whakaputa tōrunga o te pupuri i tētahi iwi taumahinga e hāngai ana i ngā kura whakakaha pūnoa, ka puta hoki i a ia te hua tōraro o te aroturuki.
Ka tūhura ēnei kura i tētahi momo pū matua pāpori rerekē, pēnei i ngā mōhiohio mō ngā wā i roto i ngā whatunga pāpori whānui o ngā mātua me ētahi atu pakeke.
Ko te ritenga o ēnei kōrero ko te pānga ake o nga mātua ki nga mātauranga o a rātau tamariki.
Me te kore te pūmatua pāpori i te wāhi mātauranga, ka whakawhirinaki ngā kaiako me ngā mātua e whai mana ana ki te ako ākonga, ka taea te whakawhirinaki ki ēnei take te pānga nui ki ngā akoranga ā-wānanga a ta rātau tamaiti.
E ai ki a Tedin and Weiher (2010), "ko tetahi mea nui hei whakatairanga i te angitu o nga akonga ko te whakauru kaha o nga maatua ki te maatauranga o te tamaiti." "
Ko ngā whatunga tautoko, hei āhua o te pūmatua pāpori, e hiahiatia ana hei whakahohe i te pūmatua ahurea o ngā ākonga hou ka tae mai.
He tino nui rawa te pūtahitanga o te iwi i roto i te horopaki e tae noa atu ai ngā tangata i roto i te rōpū ope.
Ko te tautoko iwi e whai wāhi āwhina ana ki te angitu o te āhuka.
Ko tana tautohe matua mo te whakarārangi i te pūmatua pāpori hei ariā matawhenua, he hanga, he hanga hoki nga whanaungatanga o te tangata e ngā wāhi e noho ana rātau.
I ana akoranga, kaore a ia e titiro atu ki ngā kaiuru takitahi o ēnei hanganga, engari me pēhea ngā hanganga me ngā tūhononga pāpori e ahu mai ana i a rātou i te mokowā.
Ko tētahi atu wāhi e taea ai te kite i te pūmatua pāpori hei wāhanga akoranga i te papawhenua, nā roto i te tātaritanga o te whai wāhitanga i roto i te pono me te tautoko a ngā kāinga kē.
He nui tonu te hononga i waenganui i te pūtea wātea me te pāpori manapori.
I roto i tētahi akoranga ā muri ake, e whakaatu ana a Kisita (2020) i te wāhanga i waenganui i te hiahia me te noho kotahitanga.
Ko ngā kitenga ōrite i whakaaturia i roto i tētahi akoranga whakawhiti-wāhanga ka whakahaeretia e Sarker i Pākaratīhi.
I pēnei a Epo mā te whakataurite i ngā hua o te ora o nga kaimahi e whai āhei ana rāua tahi me te kore āheitanga.
Ka puta ake te whakahoahoa rōpū (e kīia ana hoki he whakahāngai rōpū me te hononga pāpori) ina hono ngā here i ngā mema o tētahi rōpū pāpori ki a rātou anō, ki te rōpū katoa hoki.
Ka taea te whakarite ake te whakahuatanga o te whakahoahoa hei āhuatanga kia kotahi te āhua o tētahi rōpū i a ia e mahi ana ki tētahi whāinga, ki te whakaae rānei i ngā hiahia whakaaro o ōna mema.
Ko tōna āhua hihiri e pā ana ki te huri ā-wā i roto i tōna kaha me te āhua mai i te wā ka whakaritea he rōpū ki te whakakoretanga i tētahi rōpū.
Ka taea te whānui tēnei tautuhinga ki te nuinga o ngā rōpū kua whakaahuatia e te tautuhinga rōpū kua kōrerorerotia ki runga ake nei.
I tētahi akoranga, ka tonoa e rātou ki ngā mema rōpū kia tohu i ō rātou hoa pai katoa, ā, ka tatau i te ōwehenga o ngā kōwhiringa rōpū ki ngā kōwhiringa whakarōpū.
He ōrite te whakahaere rōpū ki tētahi momo tāwhana taumata-rōpū, e mōhiotia ana hei tāwharatanga pāpori ki te hōkī.
Ko Loti me Lott (1965) e tohutoro ana ki te tātātanga o te huihuinga, he uaua rōpū, ka arotakea tētahi arotakenga whānui ki ngā pukapuka, ā, i kitea ko ngā ōritenga o ngā tangata i te papamuri (hei tauira, iwi, iwi, mahi, pakeke), ngā āhuatanga, ngā uara me ngā āhuatanga ā-āhuatanga i te nuinga o te āhuatanga o te rōpū.
Anō hoki, mā te papamuri ōrite ka taea e ngā mema te tiritiri tiro ōrite mō ngā take maha, tae atu ki ngā kaupapakōrero rōpū, ngā aratuka whakawhitiwhiti me te momo aronga e hiahiatia ana.
I takeatia tēnei e te rohi pāpori, he ariā e kī ana ka iti ake te kaha o nga mema takitahi o te rōpū, nā te mea e whakapono ana rātau ka whakatika ētahi atu mema ki te pōrori.
Ko te nuinga o ngā kaitirotiro meta (ngā akoranga kua whakarāpopoto i ngā hua o ngā akoranga maha) kua whakaaturia he pātahitanga i waenganui i te hononga me te mahinga.
Ki te tautuhia hei tukutahi tūmahi, ka honoa anō ki te mahinga, ahakoa he iti iho te waeine i te hononga hei tīhaetanga.
Heoi anō, ka kaha ake pea te hononga ā-whakahaere o ētahi rōpū i ētahi atu.
Tērā ētahi whakaaturanga he kaha ake pea te pānga o te whakahoahoa ki te mahinga mō ngā rōpū e tino nui ana ngā tūnga whakawhitiwhiti i tēnā mō ngā rōpū e noho takitahi ana ngā mema.
Tērā anō, he tino whai painga ngā rōpū whai whāinga mahinga tiketike.
He nui ake hoki te ngā mema i roto i ngā rōpū whakahaere, ā, he iti ake te pā kino i ngā raruraru pāpori i te hunga i roto i ngā rōpū whakahē.
I kitea kua tino pāngia nga kaimahi kohatu me nga kāmura i a rātau e mahi ana i roto i ngā rōpū whakahoahoa.
I kitea e tētahi mātauranga ka taea e te whakahaere hei tautūmahi te whakapai ake i te whakatauranga ā-rōpū ina kei te hauā te rōpū, neke atu i te wā kāore i te hau.
I kitea e te mātauranga ko ngā tīma whai ngākau iti, me te tino tere, i kino kē atu i te tīma whai kaha tiketike me te tino tere o te tino kaha.
Ko te ariā o te whakarōpū e whakaaro ana kia āraia te rōpū e ārai ana i te whakaaro nui mo nga whakataunga e mahia ana e ia.
Ko tētahi atu take nā te mea e uara ana te tāngata i te rōpū, ā, he nui ake tō rātou hiahia ki te hoatu i ngā āheitanga ōrite ki te pupuri, ki te whakarei ake rānei i ō rātou pātahitanga.
I whakaarohia te taumata pīrangitanga o te mema hai tohu i te kaha o te rōpū.
E ai ki te kāwanatanga, ko ngā pūrongo tūturu o ngā Tūnga o Ngā Tāone Ingarihi, e rima ngā ahu rerekē o te hononga pāpori: ngā herenga tinana, ngā pātahitanga ngoikore, ngā pātahitanga hohe, te tatanga, te whakauru me te ōritetanga.
Ko ēnei tikanga taketake o te oranga ko nga tūāpapa o te pāpori pakari me nga tohu hira o te kauneketanga pāpori.
Ko te ahu tuatoru e pā ana ki ngā tauwhitinga tōrunga, ngā whakawhiti me ngā whatunga i waenganui i ngā tāngata me ngā hapori, te "pātahitanga pāpori hoherānei"."
Kei roto hoki ko ngā āhuatanga tangata o tētahi taone me te kaha o ngā wheako tiritiri, ngā tuakiri me ngā uara i waenganui i ērā atu papamuri.
I runga i tētahi taumata pāpori ka whakamāramatia e AlbrektKarua te hononga pāpori 'hei whakapono-ā-iwi—e pupuritia ana e ngā tangata i roto i tētahi āhuatanga i tukuna i tētahi iwi-e tiritiri ai rātau i tētahi iwi ā iwi, e āhei ai rātau ki te whakawhirinaki ki a rāua anō'.
Ko te hanganga pāpori he ariā Hapirihi (e ōrite ana ki te 'iwi') e kōrero ana ki te tohu hītori i waenganui i te aratau pūmotu o te whakanaotanga, te pupuri i ngā aratau tōmua pūmotu o te whakaputa, me te horopaki ā-papa o te āhua o te mahi pūtea.
I roto i ngā tikanga pāpori, ko te hanganga pāpori ko ngā whakaritenga ā iwi i tauiratia i roto i te iwi e puta tahi mai ana me te whakatau i ngā mahi a te tangata.
E rerekē ana ki te "pūnaha pāpori, e tohutoro ana ki te hanganga matua e tāmautia ai ēnei hanganga."
E whakatau ana i nga tikanga me nga tauira o te whanaungatanga i waenganui i nga rōpū momo o te iwi.
He mea nui hoki i roto i te akoranga hou o ngā whakahaere, mā te hanganga o tētahi whakahaere e whakatau i tōna ngāwaritanga, te kaha ki te huri, te aha, te aha.
I runga i te tauine meso, e pā ana ki te hanganga o ngā whatunga pāpori i waenganui i ngā tāngata, i ngā umanga rānei.
Hei tauira, kua whakaritea e Hoani Riwai Mātini ko ētahi hanganga tauine tonotono ko ngā āhuatanga putake o ngā kaupapa ahurea moroiti-moroiti (i.e., "hanga" e āhua ana ka whakamahia e te kaipoke tikanga anō ko Claude Riwai-Karaiti).
Ko Nehe de Tocqueville te mea tuatahi hei whakamahi i te kupu hanganga pāpori"."
Ko tētahi o ngā kōrero tuatahi me te tino whānui o te hanganga pāpori i whakaratoa e Kāra Mēhihi, nāna i pā ki te oranga tōrangapū, ahurea, me te whakapono ki te aratau o te whakanaotanga (tētahi hanga o te ohaoha e pā ana ki raro iho).
Nā Émile Durkheim, e tātuhi ana i nga whakataurite i waenganui i ngā pūnaha koiora me te pāpori i whakawaia e Hepeta Whanake me ētahi atu, i whakamōhio i te whakaritenga o ngā tikanga me ngā mahi pāpori, i whakarite i te whakaritenga o te whakaurunga taumahinga o te iwi mā te whakawhenumi i ngā wāhanga rerekē ki roto i te whakakotahitanga i te katoa.
Ko ētahi e whai ana i A Lévi-Tae ki te kimi i te raupapa arorau i roto i nga hanganga ahurea.
Ko ngā whakamātau tino whai mana ki te whakakotahi i te ariā o te hanganga pāpori ki te wātea, ko te ariā a Anthony Gidens o te whakawaiwai me te ariā mahi a Pierre Bourdieu.
I roto i tēnei take, he āta whakaōrite te āhuatanga a Harakā Derrida o nga pūtaketake o raro i ngā take mātauranga me ngā tikanga o Kiredenā (i runga anō i te āhuatanga whānui o te hanganga a Lévi-Arataki).
I akohia tenei e Jacob L. Moreno.
Ko te pāporitanga he āpure koiora e whai ana ki te tirotiro me te whakamārama i te whanonga pāpori i runga i te kunenga.
E torotoro ana te matauranga pāpori ki ngā whanonga pāpori pēnei i ngā tauira whāinga, whawhana rohe, whawhana pōkai, me te whāngai kōhanga o nga ngārara pāpori.
E waitohu ana ka mahi ngā kararehe i runga i nga āhuatanga kua tohu he angitu noa iho te āhua o te wā.
Nō reira ko te whanonga e kitea ana he kaha ki te tiaki i te tīpapa o te tangata i roto i te iwi whānui.
I whāngaia e Altmann tōna ake momo pāpori ki te ako i te whanonga pāpori o te rematiki me ngā tatauranga, ā, i utua hei kaimātai pāpori", i te Pokapū Rangahau Tinana Kāwanatanga o Yerkes i te tau kotahi mano 1965."
I te wa o te waahi tohunga, "sociobiology" "i tino mohiotia i te tau 1975 i te wa i whakaputaina ai e Wilson tana pukapuka Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, i puta ai he totohe nui."
Heoi anō, ko te āhuatanga o te kunenga i runga i te whanonga he aronga ki ngā kaimātai koiora me ngā tohunga pūkenga mai i muri i te kitenga o te kunenga.
Ka tuhituhi a Edward H. Hagen i roto i te Pukapuka Hinengaro o Haurangi, ko te tōpūtanga, ahakoa te tautohe tūmatanui e pā ana ki ngā taupānga ki te tangata, ko tētahi o ngā whakamanatanga pūtaiao o te rua tekau tau." """
Nō reira, ko ēnei āhuatanga pea he "urutau" i roto i te taiao i tipu ai te momo.
Koia rātau e hiahia ai ki te whanonga inoi, whanonga pūmanawa rānei, me te whakamārama i ngā ōritenga, kaua i ngā rerekētanga, i waenganui i ngā ahurea.
Ka nui haere te auau o te nuinga o te iwi whānui i tēnei parenga mātua.
E.O. Ko te whakapae a Wilson tera pea ka mahi te whanaketanga ki runga roopu.
Mēnā ka whakaritea ā-iratia te āhuatanga, me whakaputa anō e te tangata whanoke o rātou ake āhuatanga iranga ahurangi kia ora ai, engari ina whakanuia e nga kaihoko a rātau rawa mo te hunga kē i runga i o rātau ahua, ka mate te hunga tūkino, ā, ka āhua nui ake ētahi atu.
I roto i te pāporitanga, ka whakamātauria te whanonga pāpori hei ariā pāpori mā te kimi i tētahi tikanga mahi pūmanawa e ōrite ana ki te whanonga matatū.
He rite tonu te whakamāharatanga i waenganui i nga ngārara pāpori me nga kaitiaki punipuni.
Ko te ahuwhānui, ka iti iho pea te whakarākeitanga o ngā wā ka whai wāhi i te hua o te uri, ā, ka taea hoki te whakarite whai wāhi ki te whakamōrahi i te kai me te parenga i te kai.
Ko te tikanga kua kitea e ngā akoranga o ngā āhuatanga whanonga āhuatanga pēnei i te auaha, te whakawhanake, te whakatuki, me te IQ he āhuatanga ā-āhuatanga nui.
Nā reira, ina mukua te FEV mai i te huka ira kiore, ka whakaekea inamatatia e te kiore ētahi atu tāne, ā, ka roa kē atu te tīmata i ō rātau kaingākau ki te tīmata i ngā whanonga kino.
I te wa o te hui 1976 a te Roopu Whaiao Sociobiology, e ai ki ta Ullica Segerstråle, i kii a Chomsky mо̄ te hiranga o te korero a-hapori mо̄ te tangata.
E kii ana a Wilson kaore ia i kii ki te kii ko te aha anake, engari he aha te keehi.
Ko te umanga te hohenga o te whai wā ora, te mahi moni rānei mā te hokohoko, te hoko, te hoko hua rānei (pēnei i ngā taonga me ngā ratonga).
Ki te whiwhi nama te umanga, ka taea e nga kaiwhi te whai i nga taonga whaiaro o te kaipupuri.
Ko te nuinga o te wā e whakamahia ana te kōrerorero (engari ehara i te rōia, e ngā mana tūmatanui rānei) hei tohutoro ki tētahi kamupene.
Ko tētahi kaporeihana whai wāhi, ko ana kaipupuri moni whai hua, nā rātou i whiriwhiri he poari kaiwhakahaere hai whakahaere i te kaporeihana me te utu i ana kaimahi whakahaere.
He rerekē te whakakotahitanga i tētahi kaporeihana i roto i te whai mema, ehara i te kaipupuri, ā, e tiri ana rātau i te mana whakatau.
Ko ngā kamupene taunaha whāiti (RKT), ngā hoa taunaha whāiti, me ētahi atu momo umanga pākihi e pare ana i ā rātou rangatira, kaipupuri pūtea rānei i ngā rahunga pakihi mā te mahi umanga i raro i tētahi umanga ā-ture motuhake me ētahi atu parenga ture.
Ka whakaūngia e ngā mema te utunga o ētahi moni (e ingoa ana) mēnā ka uru te kamupene ki te wainga kore, engari ki te kore, kāore ō rātau motika ohaoha e pā ana ki te kamupene.
Kāore pea tēnei momo kamupene e hangaia ki te UK, ahakoa kei te ture tonu ēnei mea.
"Kia mōhio koe ko ""Ltd i muri i te ingoa o te kamupene, he whāiti te ingoa o te kamupene, ā, ko PLC (te kamupene whāiti tūmatanui) e tohu ana ka puritia ōna hea."""
I roto i tētahi kamupene e whakawhāititia ana e te kī taurangi, ko tēnei te hunga whakamana.
Kāore he hea hokohoko tūmatanui o ngā kamupene tūmatanui, ā, i te nuinga o te wā kei roto ngā rāhuitanga o ngā whakawhitinga tiri.
Ma ngā kamupene whakangahau me ngā puna pāpāho maha e whakaputa hua te nuinga o te hokonga o te rawa hinengaro.
Kei roto ko ngā taonga rawa pēnei i ngā motokā, i ngā pahi, i ngā pūrere rongoā, i te karaehe, i te rererangi rānei.
Ko te nuinga o nga pātaka me nga kamupene putumōhio, he kaihoko, he kaihoko rānei.
Na te hoko taonga me nga ratonga e pā ana ki te hākinakina, ka whai hua rātau.
Ko te papa hou i whakatuhia e te kaimanaika Itari a Luca Pacioli i te 1494.
Ka taea hoki te tautuhi te moni hai pūtaiao o te whakahaere moni.
Ka taea e ngā kaipupuru te whakahaere ā rātou ake umanga, te whakamahi kaiwhakahaere rānei hei mahi pēnei mā rātou.
Ko te whakahaere tukanga pakihi (BPM) he whānuitanga whakahaere katoa e hāngai ana ki te whakarārangi i ngā āhuatanga katoa o tētahi umanga ki ngā hiahia me ngā hiahia o ngā kiritaki.
He maha ngā pakihi e whakahaeretia ana mā tētahi umanga motuhake pēnei i te kaporeihana, i te mahi ngātahi rānei (ahakoa i hangaia ki te taunaha whāiti, kāore rānei he taunaha iti).
Ko te nuinga o te wā, ko ngā kaipupuri i roto i tētahi kaporeihana, he hoa tauwhāiti i roto i tētahi mahi whāiti, ā, ko ngā mema i roto i tētahi kamupene taunaha iti e whakangungu ana i te taunaha whaiaro mō ngā nama me ngā tikanga a te kamupene, e whakamahia tika ana hei tangata motuhake ".
Ko ngā whakaritenga o te mahi ngātahi e whakahaeretia ana e tētahi whakaaetanga mahi ngātahi mehemea ka hangaia tētahi, ā, ko tētahi wāhi e te ture o te mana whakahaere kei reira te hoa mahi.
I ētahi pūnaha tāke, ka puta tēnei ki te tāke taurua, nā te mea ko te kaporeihana he utu tāke mo te hua, ā, ki te tohaina e te kaporeihana ana hua ki ōna rangatira, me whakauru e ngā tāngata ngā moni hua ki a rātou moni whiwhinga ina oti i a rātou utu tāke whaiaro, i reira ka hoatu he apa tuarua o ngā tāke moni whiwhi.
Ko te tikanga o ""Haere ki te tūmatanui"" mā tētahi tukanga e mōhiotia ana hei whakahere tūmatanui tuatahi (PITO) ko tērā wāhanga o te umanga ka riro i ngā mema o te iwi whānui."
Ka hoki anō te Waehere o Hammupai ki te āhua o te 1772 Īmēra, ā, kei roto hoki ētahi whakarato e pā ana ki ētahi atu mea, ki ngā utu tukunga me ngā mahi i waenganui i ngā kaihokohoko me ngā kaiwhakahaere.
Ka hiahiatia hoki pea e ngā mana ā-rohe ngā raihana motuhake me ngā tāke hei whakahaere umanga.
Ko te nuinga o nga whenua whai mākete pūtea nui, kotahi neke atu rānei.
Ko ētahi atu iwi ki te uru, he ōrite nga tinana whakatinana.
Na te whakatōpūtanga me te nui haere o te matatinitanga o ngā ture e whakahaere ana i ngā umanga ka nui ake te whakaritetanga i roto i te ture rangatōpū.
Ko te nuinga o nga pakihi he ingoa, he moko, me ngā tikanga tohu ōrite e whai hua ana i te moko.
Ko te ohaoha te mātauranga pāpori e mātau ana ki te pēhea te tauwhiti a te tangata ki te uara; ko te whakanaotanga, te tuari, me te whakapaunga i nga taonga me ngā ratonga.
I whakapūtātia e ia kua whakawateatia e nga kaitiaki o mua, a rātou mātauranga mо̄ te tātari taonga: te hanganga o te taonga, te whakaputa, te paunga hoki o te taonga; a, kā pēhea te tupu o te taonga.
Mēnā kāore te whawhai i te māuiui, mēnā rānei he nui ake ngā utu i tūmanakohia ki runga ake i ngā hua, ka kore pea e haere ngā kaitapere whakatau (mēnā kei te haumaru ērā) ki te pakanga (he whakatau) engari me tūhura i ētahi atu whiringa.
Ka puta ngā whakahau ohaoha puta noa i ngā tuhinga a te kaitito O Hesiod me te nuinga o ngā pūkōrero rangatira o te ohaoha i whakaahuatia a Hesiod ko Ia te kaitito matua"."
E rua ngā rōpū, i kīia i muri nei ko "ngā rārangi tohu atawhai, me te ""pūwhakakōkā", i āta whakaawe i te whanaketanga o muri mai o te kaupapa."
Na te rangatiratanga o te iwi i whakawhirinaki ki tana whakatōpū koura me te hiriwa.
I hangaia e Kōkākā, he rōpū pūtiro Wīwī me ngā kaituhi o te rau tau 18, te ariā o te āhua o te āhua o te mahi hei rerenga porowhita o te moni whiwhinga me te huaputa.
I taunakitia e Kōkōkā te whakakapi i nga kohinga tāke utu nui ki te tāke kotahi mo nga rangatira whenua.
E kōrero ana a Smith i ngā painga tūpono o te whakawhāititanga na te whakawāteatanga o te mahi, tae atu ki te nui ake o te taonga mahi me te whiwhinga i te hokohoko, ahakoa i waenganui i te taone me te whenua, i ngā whenua rānei.
Ko te tōpana o te tokomaha tere o te tokomaha ki te wāhi iti rawa o te whenua, ko te whakamōkitotanga o te hokinga ki te mahi.
Ahakoa i whakapuakina e Arama Wāmita te wāhanga o te moni whiwhinga, i arotahi a Rawiri Rikori (1817) ki te tuari moni whiwhi i waenganui i nga tangata whenua tangata whenua, i nga kaimahi, i nga tangata pūtea ā-pūtea.
Ko Ritoto te tuatahi hei whakarite i te tikanga o te whakatairaki i te tikanga o te whakatairaki, kia whakaaroaro ai ia whenua ki te whakaputa taonga, ki te kaweake taonga, kia iti iho ai te utu o te whanaunga, engari me whakawhirinaki anake ki tōna ake whakanaotanga.
I tohu te mira ki tētahi rerekētanga kē i waenganui i nga tūnga e rua o te mākete: te tohatoha o ngā rauemi me te tuari moni whiwhinga.
I tuhituhi a Hāwhe ko te utu tūturu o ngā mea katoa ... ko te mahi me te raruraru o te whiwhi"."
Kua nui ake te whakamāramatanga a Kōrero ki tō mātou wā, kua tiakina mā te whakaora i te kupu "taonga" mō "ngā taonga me ngā ratonga" ko te tikanga ka whai rawa pea i ngā ahanoa-kore rawa.
"Mo Robbins, i ea te ngoikoretanga, ana ko tana whakamaaramatanga ka taea e taatau te karanga, me te ngawari o te hinengaro, te ohanga o te matauranga, te ohanga ahuru me te ahuru, ohanga hauora, ohanga o te pakanga, me te tikanga, hanga, tohatoha me te ohanga kai hei kaupapa tika mo te putaiao ohanga. """
Ahakoa te tawhiti mai i te kotahitanga o te whakaaro, ko te nuinga o nga ohanga o te ao whanui ka whakaae ki etahi momo whakamarama a Robbins, ahakoa te nuinga kua whakahee i te kaha me te tikanga ohaoha, mai i taua whakamaaramatanga.
Ko te kupu ohaoha"" i mōhiotia e ērā mātauranga tohunga kōhukihu, pēnei i a Whāwhānui Māhara hei kupu taurite mō te ""pūtaiao ohaoha", me tētahi whakakapi mō te "ohaoha tōrangapū"."
I tuaritia ki te ariā mahi o te uara i tuku iho i te mātauranga o te ao whānuitanga, e manakohia ana e tētahi kaupapa whaipainga iti i te taha o te tono, me tētahi kaupapa utu whānui ake i te taha o te putanga.
Ko tētahi tauira ināianei ko te kaupapa whakataki o ia tono, e wehe ana i te pēhea te pānga o ngā utu (pērā ki ngā utu) me ngā moni whiwhinga e hiahiatia ana.
Ko nga ohanga auraki hou e hangai ana ki nga ohanga neoclassical engari he maha nga whakapainga hei taapiri, hei whakariterite ranei i nga waahanga o mua, penei i te econometric, te kemu kēmu, te wetewete i te ngoikore o te maakete me te whakataetae korekore, me te tauira neoclassical mo te tipu ohaoha mo te wetewete i nga rereketanga kua roa e pa ana ki nga moni a motu. .
He raru ohaoha ano hoki, ka tirohia e te putaiao ohanga, ina whakatauhia ana (kotahi) tetahi o nga kaitakawaenga-whakahaere-rauemi ranei kia whai hua pai ake i raro i nga tikanga whaitake.
I arotahi te pukapuka ki nga tohu o nga moni a-motu i roto i te wa poto ka ahua ngawari te ahua o nga utu.
Ko nga ohanga Keynesian e rua nga kaitautoko.
Ko te tikanga e hono atu ana ki te Whare Waananga o Cambridge me nga mahi a Joan Robinson.
Ko Ben Bernanke, te Tiamana o mua mo te Rahui a-rohe, kei waenga i nga ohanga o te ao e whakaae ana ki te wetewete i a Friedman mo nga take o te Raru Pouri.
I te wā e hanga ana i ngā ariā, ko te kaupapa ko te kimi i ngā mea ngāwari noa iho mо̄ ngā whakaritenga korero, he tika ake i ngā matapae, he whai hua hoki ki te mahi rangahau tāpiri i ngā kaupapa o mua.
Ko ngā tauira hōu o te tonotono e arotahi ana ki te whakataurite i ngā pātahitanga i waenga i ngā tāupe hīkoi, engari i te āhuatanga o ngā pātahitanga ki te huri i te wā o ngā tonotono, tae atu ki ngā Hungaikaika hou, i whakahou ake ai i ō rātau tauira i ngā maioroorotanga.
I ētahi wā he mārire noa iho te whakaaro ohaoha, ehara i te ine nui.
Heoi anō, kai te tipu te āpure o te ohaoha whakamātautau, ā, ko te whakanui haere o te whakamahinga e mahia ana ki ngā whakamātautau māori.
Ma taua tikanga, ka whiwhi te ariā ki te whakaae, ahakoa i roto i te pāpāhotanga, ehara i te mōhio.
Ko ngā whakahē i runga anō i ngā paerewa ngaio me ngā tāruatanga o ngā hua ka noho hei taki atu anō ki te tītaha, ngā hapa, me ngā tauwhānuitanga, ahakoa he nui tonu ngā rangahau o te ohaoha i whakapaea ehara i te mea whakahuatia, ā, ko ngā pukapuka tūturu kua whakapaea kāore i te whakarato i te tukuruatanga mā te whakarato waehere me ngā raraunga.
I te pānga o te ohaoha kua hoatu, he tino pūnoa ngā tauira tāuru–huaputa e whakamahi ana i ngā aratuka papatono paerangi.
Kua whakaitihia e tēnei te rerekētanga o te mātauranga ohaoha i nga pūtaiao maori, nā te mea ka whakaaetia e ia te whakamātau tōtika o ngā mea i tangohia i mua hei raruraru.
Ko te whakamātautau āhua rite tonu ka puta i roto i nga mahi pūhauhau.
I te mākete māia kē, kaore he kaiuru i te nui rawa kia whiwhi ai te hiko mākete ki te whakarite i te utu o tētahi hua pūhohe.
Mā te whakangāwari i te pūnaha o te ohaoha mā te whakangāwari i te pūnaha o te ohaoha mā te whakaaro kāore he pānga ki ētahi atu mākete i ngā ngohe i roto i te mākete e tātaihotia ana.
Ko te akoranga ariā taurite-ahuwhānui i nga momo mākete me to rātau whanonga.
Me mahi ngā kōwhiringa i waenganui i ngā mahi e hiahiatia ana, engari me tāuke tahi rānei.
Ko tētahi wāhanga o te utu mo te mahi pere, kāore te parāoa, te ata rānei i te wātea ināianei, hei mahi i ētahi atu āhuatanga.
Ko ngā tāurunga e whakamahia ana i roto i te tukanga whakanao, ko ngā āhuatanga tuatahi o te whakanaotanga pērā ki ngā ratonga mahi, te pūmatua (he taonga whai roa e whakamahia ana i te whakaputa, pēnei i tētahi wheketere tīariari), me tētahi whenua (tae atu ki ngā rauemi māori).
Ka pai ake te tōtika mēnā ka whakaputaina ētahi atu huaputa me te kore huri i ngā tāuru, i ētahi atu kupu rānei, ka whakahekea te rahi o te "moumou" rānei.
I te take ngāwari noa iho ka taea e te āhua o te whakahaere te whakaputa taonga e rua noa iho (kī atu "pū" me te "pata)."
E whakaaturia ana te taumahatanga ki te whika e ngā tāngata e hiahia ana engari kāore e taea te rōpū ki tua atu i te PPF (pērā ki te X) me te pānaki tōraro o te ānau.
Ko te pānakitanga o te ānau i runga i te wāhi e whakawhitiwhiti ana i waenganui i nga taonga e rua.
I runga i te PPF, ko te taumahatanga e tohu ana ko te kōwhiri i tētahi mea pai kē atu i roto i te rōpūnga, ko te tikanga kia iti iho te mahi o tērā atu pai.
Ko tētahi pito i roto i te ānau (pērā ki te A), ka whai āhei, engari e tohu ana i te tau ahurea whakaputatanga (whakapaua ai ngā tāuru), i roto i tērā huaputa o tētahi, o ngā taonga rānei, ka nui ake mā te neke ki te ahunga ā-hawhāwhiti ki tētahi pito i runga i te ānau.
Kua mōhiotia tērā te kahaoro nui o te hokohoko e puta ana i waenganui i ngā rohe, ahakoa he āheitanga ki tētahi hangarau ōrite me te whāranu o ngā tāuru āhuatanga, tae atu ki ngā whenua moni tiketike.
I waenganui i ēnei pūnaha whakanao, tērā pea he wehewehenga mahi e ōrite ana ki ngā rōpū mahi kē e hāngai ana, he rerekē rānei ngā momo utauta pūmatua me ngā whakamahinga whenua pāhāhō.
Na te ariā me te kitenga i whakarite ngā here e tīpakohia ai ngā utu mākete o ngā huaputa me ngā tāurunga whaihua, ka tīpakohia tētahi tohatanga o ngā tāurunga āhuatanga mā te whakatairite, nō reira (āhua) ngā tāurunga utu-iti ki te whakaputa i ngā huaputa utu-iti.
I roto i ngā mōkito, ka pā ki te utu me te hua o te mana tāputa mō tētahi mākete whai whakataetae tino tika, kei roto hoki ko te here o te kore kaihoko, ngā kaihoko rānei e nui rawa atu kia whiwhi hiko tautuhinga utu.
Ka whakamāramatia e te ariā tono he kiritaki takitahi, he whakahauhau te whiriwhiri i te nuinga tino pai o ia painga, te moni hua, te utu, te ngao, te aha, te mea e manakohia ana.
E kī ana te ture o te tono, ko te tikanga, ko te utu me te nui e tonoa ana i roto i te mākete hoatu, he kōaro te pānga ki te mākete.
Anō hoki, mā te hoko hiko i te utu e whakapeka ka nui ake te āhei ki te hoko (te pānga moni whiwhi).
Ko te whakarato te whanaungatanga i waenganui i te utu pai me te nui e wātea ana mo te hoko i taua utu.
Ko te tikanga, ko te putanga he taumahi e pā ana ki te utu me te rahi, mēnā kāore ētahi atu take i te huri.
Rite tonu ki te taha tono, ka āhei te tūnga o te putanga te neke, kī mai i tētahi huringa i te utu o tētahi tāuru whai hua, tētahi whakapainga hangarau rānei.
Ka puta te tauritenga mākete i te wāhi e ōrite ana te nuinga e hiahiatia ana, te whakawhitinga o te putanga me ngā ānau tono i roto i te tau o runga ake nei.
He utu i runga ake i te taurite, he nui noa atu te nui e tukua ana i runga ake i te nuinga e hiahiatia ana.
Ko nga momo rōpū tino mārama, he kaporeihana, he huihuinga, he pono.
I roto i nga mākete whakataetae tino mātauranga i akona i runga i te ariā o te putanga me te tono, he tokomaha nga kaiwhakanao, kaore ētahi o ēnei e tino whakaawe ana i te utu.
Ko nga hanganga mākete whānui i akona i tua atu i te whakataetae tino tika, ko te whakataetae ā-ariā, ko nga momo o ngā tauwhāinga o te tauwhāinga, me te āhua o te āhua o te poho.
Mā ōna āhua rerekē, he maha nga huarahi e whakaatu ana i te tūtohu me te whakarite i nga urupare a nga kaiāwhina o te oha.
I roto i te ohaoha whanonga, kua whakamahia hei tauira i ngā kaikawe kōwhiringa a ngā kaiwhakahaere ina tauwhiti ki ētahi atu e raruraru ana ō rātou ake painga.
Tērā ētahi taupānga nui i waho o te ohaoha i roto i ēnei kaupapa rerenga kē, pēnei i te tātaitanga o ngā rautaki karihi, te tikanga, te pūtaiao tōrangapū, me te koiora ā-rerenga.
Ka tātari anō hoki i te utu o ngā taputapu pūtea, te hanganga ā-pūtea o ngā kamupene, te kaha me te pōhaketanga o ngā mākete pūtea, ngā mōrea pūtea, me ngā kaupapa here kāwanatanga, ture rānei e pā ana ki te kāwanatanga.
Ko ngā kiritaki kāhore he mōhio mēnā he "rēmana" te kōpaka i tōna utu i raro iho nei he pēhea te kounga o te motokā tuarua.
Mā ngā raruraru e rua e whakanui i ngā utu inisua me te whakaiti i te tōtika mā te whakahaere i ngā kaitawhiti whai manawa mai i te mākete ("mākete kāore i te oti)."
Ka puta pea ngā pūnaha mōhiohio me ngā mākete kāore anō kia oti i te pūngao ā-ohu, engari tērā pea ka āhei te whakapiki i te tōtika mā te mākete, te ture, me ngā rongoā mana, pērā i kōrerotia i runga ake nei.
Ko nga taonga tūmatanui he taonga kai raro iho i te mākete pūnoa.
Hei tauira, ka whakaputa pea te pokenga hau i tētahi waho tōraro, ā, ka whakaputa pea te mātauranga i tētahi waho tōrunga (he iti iho te hara, ērā atu mea.
I te maha o ngā wāhi, ka whakaritea ētahi momo rākau utu ki te pūkete mō te nuinga, ehara i te utu, e whakarerekē ana i te oma poto ki ngā huringa i te taha tono, i te taha putanga rānei.
Ko ngā tauira o taua rākau utu i tērā o ngā mākete ko ngā utu i ngā mākete mahi me ngā utu i tukuna ki ngā mākete e whakatakariri ana i te whakataetae tino tika.
Ko ēnei hīkoi ko ngā moni whiwhinga me ngā hua o te motu, te mokatere kore mahi, me te utunga utu me ngā hōkaiipuapū pēnei i te whakapaunga katoa me te hokohoko pūtea penapena me ā rātou mōtete.
Kua kōrerotia e tēnei he āwangawanga tū tonu mo nga whanaketanga maiorooro o te kaupapa kotahi.
Ka tautohe a Paraoa kia iti pea te tono whakakoha mo nga taonga i te wā o nga hinganga o te ohaoha, e ahu ana ki te nui o te kore mahi me te ngaronga o te huaputa tūpāpaku e pā ana.
Ko ngā tonotono o te puāwaitanga hou, e wehe ana i te tirohanga Waiora o te huringa pakihi, ka whakawāteatia e te mākete ā-wāhi ki ngā mōhiohio korekore.
Ko te tōpana mahi anake kei roto ko nga kaimahi e kimi mahi ana.
Ka puta nga tauira o te kore mahi i te wā e nui rawa ana te utu mo nga kaitukumahi e hiahia ana ki te utu i ētahi atu kaimahi.
Ka puta te nuinga nui o te kore mahi hanga me te kore e hiahiatia he mahi whakahaere, ā, ka kitea e nga kaimahi ō rātou pūkenga tōmua.
He mana āheitanga whānui te moni, te ōritetanga pātahi ki te uara, te whakawehetanga, te kaha, te tūāpapatanga, te tāwaritanga i roto i ngā whakarato, me te roanga atu ki te ngākau pono tūmatanui.
I roto i ngā kupu a Francis Amasa Walker, he kaitiaki o te rau tau-19 e rongonuitia ana, "He aha te moni" ("Ko te moni tērā e mahi" i te mea taketake).
Ka taea te pūrata tana taumahi ohaoha ki te paepae (whakawhiti moni-kore).
Inā taka te tono hiranga ki raro iho i te huaputa tūpāpaku o te mahi pūtea, he āputa huaputa kei reira ētahi āheinga whai huaketo e waiho ana he kore mahi.
Hei tauira, ka taea ngā kaihanga kāinga kore mahi te utu ki te whakaroha i nga huanui.
Ka taea te whakatepe i nga pānga o te kaupapahere tōtika ma te whakaminenga atu.
E whakaaro ana ētahi kaitiaki ohanga he take tonu te whakangahau, ahakoa kāore e whakaaro ētahi he take nui ina whakapōrearea te huaputa.
Ko te whakamutunga, he āhuatanga o te ariā kōwhiringa tūmatanui, he tauira mo te whanonga iwi whanonga tūmatanui ki ngā mahi moroiti, e whakawhiti ana i nga kaipōti e hiahia ana ki a ia anō, ki ngā kaipāngai me ngā panarau.
E pā ana hoki ki te rahi me te tuaritanga o nga whiwhinga i te hokohoko.
I ētahi wā ka kīia i hoatu e Iarere te ingoakāinga "te pūtaiao hauraro" hei urupare ki ngā tuhituhi tōmuri o te rau tau 18 o te Pirimia, a Toma Rōpata, nāna i whakakite mīharo ka puta te matekai, he mea nui ake te tupu o te iwi whānui i te nui o te nui o ngā kai.
Ko te whanaunga tata o te ariā ohaoha o te ohaoha me te mahi ki ngā kōrangapū he arotahi o te tautohe tērā pea ka uriuri, ka whakahāwea rānei i ngā huarahi taketake tūturu rawa o te ohaoha, ā, e pōraru ana i ngā take pāpori me ngā pūnaha uara tauwhāiti.
Kua whakanuia e ētahi o ngā pukapuka o te ohaoha o te mahi ki te ine i te whakaaetanga a nga kaitohutohu e pā ana ki ētahi take kaupapahere, e tūmanako ana kia pā mai he taiao tōrangapū kē atu.
Ko ngā take pēnei i te rangatiratanga pēke matua, ngā kaupapahere pēke matua me te rerenga kōrero i roto i ngā kōnapene pēke matua, i ngā take o ngā kaupapahere ā-tonotono (kaupapahere moni me ngā take moni) o te āhua, he arotahi ki te tautohe me te whakahē.
Kei roto i te āpure o te ohaoha mōhiohio ngā rangahau taumaha pāngarau me ngā ohaoha whanonga, me ngā tikanga akoranga i roto i ngā mātauranga whanonga, me ngā take whakamārō i ngā whakaaro āhuatanga kōhukihuka te kaupapa o te mātauranga nui i nga wāhi maha o te ohaoha.
I kaha te whakaaro o Joskow i te mea i mahia te mahi nui o te oligopoly i roto i ngā kitenga ōpaki, i te mea ko ngā tauira whai tikanga he whakawhitiwhiti".
Ko tētahi atu kaupapa matua ko te kunenga, e whakamārama ana i te kotahitanga me te rerenga kētanga o te ora.
He tino hira ana mahi pēnei i te Hītori o nga Kararehe nā te mea i whakaaturia e rātau ana mahi tūturu, ā muri ake, he mahi pirinoa anō e arotahi ana ki ngā take koiora me te rerenga kētanga o te ora.
I tino mātauria te rongoā e nga tohunga Hinengaro ā-Hinengaro e mahi ana i roto i ngā tikanga āhuatanga hinengaro Kariki, i te nui o te mahi a te hītori māori ki runga i te whakaaro Aristotelian, i runga hoki i te tautāwhi i te aroākapa pūmau o te ora.
Na te tūhuratanga a Jan Swammerdam i āwhina ki te huarahi hōu ki te āhua o te āhua o te whakawāteatanga me te tāwāwāhanga moroiti.
Na, i te 1838, i tiimata te whakatairanga a Schleiden me Schwann i nga whakaaro o te ao e (1) ko te waahanga taketake o nga rauropi ko te pūtau me te (2) ko nga momo takitahi nga ahuatanga katoa o te koiora, ahakoa i whakaheehia te whakaaro (3) katoa mai nga wehenga i te wehenga o etahi atu puoro.
I whakaputahia e Carl Linnaeus tetahi taake mo te ao taiao i te 1735 (ko nga rereketanga kua whakamahia mai ra ano), ana i nga tau 1750 ka whakauruhia nga ingoa putaiao mo ana momo katoa.
I whakapono a Hāmarck ka taea ēnei āhuatanga whiwhi te haere ki nga uri o te kararehe, māna rātou e mahi anō, e whakatikatika i a rātau.
I tīmata te pūtake mō ngā iranga o nāianei ki te mahi a Kari Mendel, nāna i whakaatu tana pepa, "Versuche über Pflanzenhymamamamate" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), i te tau 1865, nāna i whakaatu ngā tikanga o te kainga tupuranga, e tautuhi ana hei take mō ngā ira o nāianei.
He arotahi ki ngā momo rauropi tauira hou pēnei i te huaketo me te huakita, tae atu ki te kitenga o te hanganga helical pūrua o te DNA e James Watson rāua ko Francis Crick i te tau1953, i tohu te tauwhiro ki te wā o ngā iranga rāpoi ngota.
Kātahi anō ka whakarewaina te Kaupapa Huinga Tangata i te tau 1990 me te whāinga ki te whakamahere i te huinga rārangi tangata.
Ka tīmata te ora i runga i te whenua i te wai, a, tata tonu ki te toru mano nga tau i mua i te heke ki te whenua.
Kotahi, neke atu rānei nga iramoe i hangaia ai te karihi.
Kei roto i te ngota o ia huānga pūtā he maha motuhake o ngā protons, e mōhiotia ana he tau karihi, ā, ko te katoa o ōna proton me ōna maimoa he tau whānui o te ngota.
Hei tauira, ka taea te tīari te waro hei isotope pūrehurehu (waro-12, waro-13 rānei) hei isotope ira iraruke (waro-14), ko te mea o mua ka taea te whakamahi i te hāngai irirangi (i runga anō i te rārangi irirangi) hei whakatau i te pakeke o ngā rauropi.
Ko te hononga ā-Ionic e pā ana ki te ātaahua hiko i waenganui i ngā katote i whakahikotia, i waenganui rānei i ngā ngota e rua ki ngā irahiko nui rerekē, ā, ko te whakawhitinga tuatahi e pā ana ki ngā pūhui ā-pīnono.
Kāore i te ōrite ki ngā here ā-iwi, ko te herenga tū tahi e whai ana i te tiritahitanga o nga irahiko takirua i waenganui i nga ngota.
Ka kitea he tauira o te here hauwai i waenganui i nga rāpoi ngota wai.
He mea hira te wai ki te ora nā te mea he whakarewa pai, ka taea te whakamemeha pēnei i te konutai me ngā ngota pēnei i te hiku me ngā rāpoi ngota iti rānei hei waihanga i tētahi rongoā auau.
I te mea he pitokore te here O–H, he iti noa iho te utu tōraro o te ngota hāora, ā, he iti noa iho te utu o ngā ngota hauwai e rua.
He whakahauhau anō hoki te wai i te mea ka taea e ia te piri atu ki te mata o tētahi rāpoipoi pākāriki, rānei i whakahikotia rānei.
Ko te kiato o te hukapapa o te hukapapa i whakatauritetia ki te wai, nā te nuinga iho o ngā rāpoi wai e hanga ana i te hanga hīoi tioata o te hukapapa, e noho ana i te nui o te mokowā i waenganui i ngā rāpoi ngota wai.
Nā reira, ko te nui o te pūngao e hiahiatia ana hei kokoti i te hauwai i waenga i ngā rāpoi ngota wai hei tahuri wai hei kūkā( wai rānei).
I tua atu i te wai, tata tonu ki nga rāpoi ngota katoa e hanga ana i ia rauropi he waro.
Hei tauira, ka taea e te ngota pūrua kotahi te hanga i ngā meke pēnei i te mehana kotahi, e rua ngā here pūrua pēnei i te karao irirua hāora rua, tētahi herenga kotahi tautoru pēnei i te waro waikura (CO).
Ka taea te whakakapi i te iwi tuarā e ētahi atu huānga pēnei i te hāora (O), hauwai (H), hāora (H), hāoraora (P), me te pūngāwhā (S), e āhei ana ki te huri i te whanonga matū o tērā pūhui.
Ki te hono ngātahitia ngā haurua pēnei i te huka me te whākōkī, ka taea e rātau te hanga i tētahi hautaka pērā i te huka.
He pūhui momoropi ēnei pukapuka, ko te nuinga o te wharawhara, me te hōpara.
Ko te rōpū hurihuri me te hōpatapa he rohe pūrua, he pīroro rānei , he māhunga rānei o te rāpoipoi, a, ko ngā waikawa ngako e hanga ana i te rohe pūkore me te hiku rānei.
Ko te pūmua te tino rerenga o ngā mahi tonotono, ko ngā whākōkī, ngā pūmua kawe, ngā rāpoi tohu nui, te ārai pūmua, me ngā pūmua hanganga.
He pānga tō te pāpātanga me te tiaki i ngā mekameka taha ki te hauoratanga o te waikawa amino.
Ko te kōpaki o ngā hepere arepa me ngā rau peta e tuku ana i tōna hanganga ahu-toru, tere rānei.
Ma te kopaki o nga helices alpha me nga pepa beta ka hoatu he pūmua ki tona hanganga ahu-toru, tuatoru ranei.
Ko ngā purini ko ngā aka (G) me te adenine (A) ahakoa he pītini (T), uracil (U), me ngā thymine (T).
Ko te kiriuhi pūtau ko tētahi tūtae ripi, tae atu ki nga ngakowai e noho ana i waenganui i ngā whītiki kia mau ai tō rātou kūtere i ngā pāmahana rerekē.
Kei roto ngā kiriuhi pūtau i ētahi tukanga pūkoro pēnei i te tāhei pūtau, te penapena i te pūngao hiko, me te tohu pūtau, ka noho hei mata āpitihanga mō ngā hanganga pūtau maha pēnei i te pātūtau, te glycocalyx, me te cytoskeleton.
Ka kōrerotia e te kuputuhiPāhāhā he pēhea te neke o "ngā paraka hanga pūkoro, ki te hanga i ngā kikini."
Kei nga pūtau tipu ētahi atu okana e wehe ana i a rātou i ngā pūtau kararehe pērā i te pātū pūtau e whakarato tautoko ana mō te pūtau tipu, ngā kōkākā e kokoti ana i te pūngao o te maramara o te rōpū huka, me ngā kohu otaota e whakarato ana i te rokiroki me te tautoko hanga, tae atu ki te tāruatanga me te ngaronga o ngā kākano tipu.
E ai ki te ture tuatahi o te māmā, ka tiakina te pūngao, i.e., kāore e taea te waihanga, te ngaro rānei.
Ko te hua, e hiahiatia ana e te rauropi he tāuru motukore o te pūngao kia mau ai te āhua iti o te taumaha.
I te nuinga o te wā ka puta te pūngao i te pūngao, a, ka pau te pūngao i te pūngao.
Ko te nuinga o te tauhohenga ka puta mai i roto i ngā hipanga pākokitanga, ko ētahi o ēnei he tauhohenga whakapouri.
Ka tāuru a Acetyl-Coa i te huringa waikawa irirangi, ā, ka noho ki roto i te poukapa kaiotaota.
Ko te hōpūtanga otaota he mea waihanga i te mekameka waka irahiko, arā, e whā ngā matatini pūmuana e whakawhiti irahiko mai i tētahi matatini ki tētahi atu, nā reira ka tuku i te pūngao mai i NADH me te FADH2, e hono ana ki te pāmu o ngā proton (hauwai ions) puta noa i te mīhini kaiota
Mēnā kāore i konei te hāora, kāore e taea te whakamātautau pūngao e te whakaora pūkoro, engari he tukanga moī.
Mā te moītanga e whakawhāora ana i te NADH ki naD+ kia taea ai te whakamahi anō ki te karihiki.
I roto i nga uaua kōauau, he waikawa reka te hua para.
I te wā o te karihimo anaerobic, ka whakatupu anō a NAD+ i te wā e whakakotahi ana ngā hauwai takirua ki te pūtāwaiwai hei hanga i te paitini.
I te wā o te whakaora, ina wātea te hāora, ka āpiti a NAD+ ki te hauwai mai i te ū ki te ATP.
I te nuinga o nga take, ka tukua hoki te hāora hai hua moumou.
He ōrite tēnei ki te tōpana kaupapa-kaupapa proton i puta noa i te kiriuhi whakaroto o roto i te āraitanga hāoraora.
I te tohu whakaaunoa, ka pā te ligand ki te pūtau ōrite e tukua ai.
I ngā eukaryotes (i.e., ki te kararehe, te tipu, te whākakā me ngā pūtau pārekareka), e rua ngā momo wehenga pūtau: ko ngā pūira me ngā pūira.
I muri i te whakawehenga pūtau, ka tīmataria e ia pūtau tamahine te whakawhitiwhiti o tētahi huringa hōu.
Kei te whakamahia ngā huringa o ēnei wehenga pūtau e rua i te tukanga o te uri tōnā ōrite i tētahi wā i roto i te huringa ora.
Kāore i te ōrite ki ngā tukanga pūiraira me ngā pūiraira i ngā āhuatanga ā-rua i roto i ngā āhuatanga ā-rua, kāore he whakatūnga o tētahi āhuatanga āmio i runga i te pūtau.
Ko te tukunga iho o Mendelian, otira ko te tikanga tuku ira me ngā ahuatanga, mai i ngā matua ki ngā uri.
Ko te tuatahi ko ngā āhuatanga iranga, e kiia nei ko te iraira, he kōpae, he whiriwhiri ōna āhua (hei tauira, papura vs. mā, teitei rānei vs. whitiwhero), i riro mai i ia i tētahi o ngā mātua e rua.
I kīia e Mendel i te whakatūnga o te kēmu, ka whakawātea ngā ira mo ia ira i a rātau anō kia kotahi anake te āhua o ia kēmu mo ia ira, e kīia ana e tana ture whakawhanake.
E honoa ana nga karihipoti ki tētahi ki tētahi i roto i te mekameka mā ngā mekameka i waenganui i te huka o tētahi karihiti me te pātōtō o tērā atu, nā te hua o te iwi huka kōaro.
Ka wehea nga turanga kia rua nga rōpū: he kaikimiri me nga purini.
Ka tāruatia te pītauira inā wehewehe nga aho e rua.
Ko te pūira he whakaritenga whakaraupapa o ngā pītauira me ngā kōhatu.
I nga karihi, ka pupuritia te pītauira ki roto i tētahi tinana āhua kōpikopiko i roto i te cytoplasm, e kiia ana ko te karioteote.
Ko ngā mōhiohio iranga i penapenatia ki te DNA e tohu ana i te momoira, ahakoa ko ngā kitenga tohuāhua mai i te āhuatanga pūmua e whakahaere ana i te hanga me te whanaketanga o tētahi rauropi, mā tērā rānei e mahi hei whākōkī i ngā ara o te tinanarau.
I raro i te waehere iranga, ka whakapūtātia e ēnei aho mRNA te raupapa o ngā waikawa amino i roto i ngā pūmua i roto i tētahi tukanga e kīa nei ko te takatau, e taka ana i roto i ngā pūrehurehu.
Ka taea te whakaraupapa me te tātari i ngā huinga iraira mā te whakamahi i te whakaraupapatanga whānui pātai dna me ngā tātai hangarau ki te whakaraupapa me te tātari i te taumahi me te hanganga o ngā huinga ira katoa.
He iti, he kiato, he raunga nga huingaira.
E whā ngā tukanga kī e whanake ana i raro i te whanaketanga: Te manawatanga, te whakarerekētanga, te mōtete me te tupunga.
Ko ngā pūtau tātā he pūtau wehewehe kore, he wāhanga rānei e whakarerekē ana ki ētahi momo pūtau me te matomaha noa iho hei whakaputa ake i te pūtau tātā ōrite.
Ka puta hoki te pūtau, te mate pūtau i whakahōtakatia rānei, i te wā o te wetewete, pēnei i te matenga o ngā pūtau i waenganui i ngā mati i roto i te whanaketanga e whāriki ai te tangata, e whakawātea mai ai i ia matimati me ngā matimati takitahi.
E tino tiakina ana ēnei kīanga utauta i waenganui i teyla, ko te tikanga he tawhito, he ōrite hoki ki ngā rōpū kararehe kua wehea whānuitia.
Ka whakataua e te tīra hīkoi te wāhi e tāruatia ai ngā wāhi, pērā i te maha o ngā tuarā o te otarere, ka tipu i roto i te kiki, i te tīwai rānei.
Ka taea te whakapuaki i tētahi ira tauira kē, pērā i te wā i whakanuia te kōkī o te kokonga whenua nui o Darwin e te ira BMP, ina ngaro rānei ō rātou waewae i ngā kōpata hei tīmatanga o Distal-less (Dlx), kāore rānei i whakapuakina, kāore rānei i whakapuakina i ngā wāhi i noho tonu ai ētahi atu ngārara ki te hanga i ō rātou ringa.
E pupuri ana tēnei tirohanga i tērā e puta ana te rerekētanga i roto i ngā auautanga noa i roto i te nuinga o ngā rauropi whakapotonga.
Ki te ngaro, ki te iti rānei te ngoikoretanga o ngā tōhanga tīpako, ka rite tonu te neke whakarunga, whakararo rānei i ia whakatupuranga whaiaho, nā te mea kei raro ngā āhuatanga i te hapa pūngao.
Ka āhei hoki te taratahitanga whakaputa ki te nui ake i te hurihanga iranga.
Ki te wehe tētahi rārangi ki te rua, ka tohu hei kōpuku (wehe rānei) i te rākau whakapakoko.
I roto i tētahi rākau, ko ngā rōpū momo i tohua ki tētahi ingoa he tāke (hei tauira, he tangata, he whāngote, he whakamāuiui rānei) me te tāke o ōna uri rerekē, he kākahu kē, e mōhiotia ana he tāke tōtahi.
Ko tētahi momo, rōpū rānei e pātata ana ki te rōpū engari he whakapāpāhua hangarite i waho, e kiia ana ko te rōpūkarere, e tautoko ana i tētahi tohutoro i te rākau.
I runga anō i te kaupapa o Parsimony (te heu rānei a Occam), ko te rākau e manakohia ana, ko ia e iti ake ana ngā huringa haurangi e hiahiatia ana hei taumira mō ngā āhuatanga katoa i roto i ngā rōpū katoa.
E ai ki tēnei pūnaha, ka tapaina ki ia momo ngā ingoa e rua, kotahi mō tōna puku me tētahi atu mō tōna momo.
Ko nga kaimātai koiora e whakaaro ana ki te mahi ā-ture o te waehere iranga hei whakaaturanga o te mōrearea noa mō ngā huakita katoa, pūrangaranga, me ngā eukaryotes.
Ā muri ake, tata ki te 1.7 billion tau ki mua, ka tīmata te puta mai o ngā rauropi pūtau maha, me ngā pūtau pāhāhā e whakamahi ana i ngā taumahi whāiti.
Na te kaha o nga tipu whenua i whakaarotia ai kua āwhinatia rātau ki te takahanga whakaputanga tōmuri o Tīkena.
I te wā o te whakaoranga o tēnei pāwharatanga, ka noho nga ārai whenua tino nui rawa; Kotahi te rōpū ārai huatau, ko nga mokowāina, i whakataua nga wā o te Hūtoro me nga wā Kiritauri.
E nohoia ana e te huakita he oneone, he wai, he wai kawakawa, he para iraruke, me te kōhauwaenga hōhonu o te kirinuku o te ao.
Ko Archaea tērā atu rohe o ngā pūtau huatau, ā, i te tuatahi kua whakawāteatia hei huakita, i te whiwhinga o te ingoa pūrangarangateri (i te kāwanatanga o Archaeteria), he kupu kua pau te whakamahinga.
Ko te tikanga he ōrite te rahi me te hanga o te pūrangaranga me ngā huakita, ahakoa he takitahi ōna hanga, pēnei i ngā pūtau papatahi, tapawhā o te ruasbyi o Hāquadratum.
He nui ake ngā pūtake pūngao e whakamahia ana e Archaea i ngā āhuatanga ā-pūngao: ko ēnei awhe mai i ngā pūhui waro, pēnei i te huka, ki te ammonia, ngā kato mētara konganuku, korohū hauwai rānei.
Ko te pūranga tuatahi i kitea he tepekore, e noho ana i roto i ngā taiao tino nui, pērā i ngā toa wera me ngā roto tote, kaore ētahi atu rauropi.
He wāhanga nui a Archaea no te oranga o Te Ao.
Ko te rima o ēnei kākahu e mōhiotia ana he rārangi rōpū, ko te nuinga o ēnei mea ko ngā rauropi merowhekoko ehara i te tipu, i te kōhuahua, i te kararehe rānei.
Ko te nuinga o nga rōpū tātā he pūtautahi, e mōhiotia ana hoki hei eukaroata mōkito.
He rongoā whakaahua ngā momo momoa, ā, ka kitea i te moana e tākaro ai rātau he kaitātaki take mātāmua.
He āhuaatua nga Ciliate e whiwhi ana i te hanganga huruhuru maha, ko Cilia.
Ko nga hōtuku he rōpū i tīmata ki te whakaputa kōrero, tata ki te 1,5 billion tau kua taha i muri mai i te taketake o nga āporoiti.
Ko nga Stramenopiles, ko te nuinga o ēnei ka taea te whakaahuatia e te aroaro o nga makawe kūpūhā i te roanga atu o a rātau tokorua, ko ngā tīwai me te kapoke parauri.
E toru nga rōpū matua o nga ātaahua: ko ngā tohutohu, ko nga mōhiotini, me nga mahi reo irirangi.
Ko te kapoke he nui tonu ngā kākano pēnei i te glaucophytes, arā he kapoke wai maorikore, he āhua rite tonu ki te tipuna tīpuna motutahi o Plantae.
Tata ki te 450 ki te 500 miriona tau kua puta tuatahi mai nga tipu whenua (kukume) i te tuatahi.
He rerekē, ko ērā atu kākahu e toru he rākau kaore e taea te hangarau, notemea kāore ō rātou takakau.
Ka kitea rātau i nga wāhi e wātea wawe ana te wai.
Ko te nuinga o nga tipu kaore i te tūturu, he torutoru nga mea e noho ana i te taiao wai maori, ā, kaore he tangata e noho ana i te moana.
Kei roto i nga koroheke, nga himikiri, a Kikoko, me nga kōpikopiko.
Ka mahia e rātau ma te tukanga e kiia nei ko te pakini ngoikore, māna rātou e huna i ngā whākōkī kūnatu o te whākōkī e tukituki ana i ngā rāpoi ngota nui i mua i te whakamātau i a rātau kiriuhi pūtau.
Ka taea te whakarōpū hei otaota, me ērā atu rārangi e rua, he heiheihana me nga kararehe.
Ki tētahi atu taha, he tinana tāngata pūtaumaha e kiia ana ko te waikura, e whai ana i te tini o ngā kōhua kōpikopako motuhake e kiia nei ko te tohuhono e āhei ai te whakawātea kia puta ai te haumaru nuinga.
He iti noa iho ngā okotahi, ka whakapau ngā kararehe i ngā mea waro, he hāoraora, e āhei ana ki te neke, te whakatupu ā-waha, te tipu mai i tētahi hurihanga pūtau hākaru, te ngāwhā, i te wā o te whanaketanga o te kikini.
Ka taea te whakaritea nga kararehe kia rua nga rōpū i runga anō i o rātau āhuatanga whanaketanga.
I roto i nga mahi huarahi ka ara ake te nekeneke ki te mangai, e whaia ana i muri i te hanganga o te anu.
He hangarite nga tinana o te nuinga o nga kararehe, me te hangarite, he mātārua rānei, he rua rānei.
Kātahi anō ka taea te kite i ngā kararehe i runga anō i te momo me te tauwāhi o ō rātou tāpiri pēnei i te mīhihi hei tārewa i te taiao, i ngā matimati rānei mō te hopuhopu pāru.
Ko te nuinga rawa (~97%) o te momo kararehe, ko nga kararehe kahore nei o ratou, ko te hanga rānei i tētahi tīwae whai tuarā (e mōhiotia nuitia ana he iwi tuarā, he tuaiwi rānei), i takea mai i te oha.
He tokomaha nga tāke huripoki e nui ake ana me ngā momo i te katoa o te kōpae tuatahi o Te Tuarā.
Neke atu i te 6,000 ngā momo huaketo kua whakaahuatia ā-taipitopito.
Ki te kore i roto i tētahi pūtau whakapoke, i te tukanga rānei o te whakapoke i tētahi pūtau, kei te tīariari ngā huaketo ki te āhua o ngā korakora takitahi, tētahi tūturu rānei, arā ko te matū ko te pūhera rānei o ngā ripo.
Kāore i te mārama nga take o ngā huaketo i roto i te hītori atarangi o te ora: tērā pea ētahi i pērā atu i ngā whiringa pītau—he wāhanga DNA ka taea te neke i waenganui i ngā pūtau — ā, ko ētahi pea kua rerekē mai i te huakita.
He maha nga huaketo ka taea te hora.
Ko te Norovirus me te rotavirus, ko ngā take whānui o ngā gastroenteritisi huaketo, e tare ana e te ara taumauri-waha, e haere ana na te hoapā-ki-waha, i te kai, i te wai rānei.
Ko te pūnaha kopere, he tātā, he rau, he putiputi.
Ko te aronga o te nekeneke wai puta noa i te kiriuhi hītaritari, e whakatauria ana e te wai ka taea puta noa i taua kiriuhi.
Ko te nuinga o ngā kākano tipu e noho kore ana, he āhuatanga e whakatārewatia ai te ngohe pūnoa o te kākano.
Ko te whakakakahu te kaupae tuatahi i roto i te kerepore, e ngongotia ai te wai e te purapura.
E whiwhia ana ēnei pūmaero i te waihā o te pākākā, te pūmua, me nga pukupuku e penapenatia ana i roto i nga pōtae, i te kīmutu rānei.
Ko o rātau putiputi he whāriki hai whakapakari, i te nuinga o te wā, mā te whakarato i tētahi tikanga mō te uniana o te tātea me ngā hēki.
Ko te whakawhitinga-ruia ko te whakawhiti i te haehae mai i te kōpae putiputi kotahi ki te tauhae o tētahi putiputi i runga i tētahi atu putiputi i runga i tētahi atu momo kotahi.
Tērā pea ka pāngia ēnei huringa e ngā take iranga, matū, ōkiko hoki.
Ko nga pūmua whakaahua e whakarato mōhiohio pēnei i te ao, i te pō rānei, i te roanga o te rā, te kaha o te marama e wātea ana, me te pūtake o te marama.
He maha nga tipu puāwai i te wā tōtika nā ngā whāngai tairongo e urupare ana ki te roanga o te pō, he tītohunga e mōhiotia ana hei whakaahuatanga.
Ka taea te whakawātea i nga kararehe hei kaitiaki whakahaere, hei whakahāngai rānei.
He rerekē, he ōrite ngā kararehe pērā ki ngā ika me ngā poroka i a rātou e whārite ana i tō rātou taiao ā roto (hei tauira, pāmahana tinana) kia ōrite ki ō rātou taiao o waho.
Hei tauira, ka taea e ngā kiore te whakapau e toru neke atu ngā kai i te rāpeti e rite ana ki ō rātou uauatanga o te pāpātanga o te hurihanga o ia wae o te kiore i te nui ake i te rāpeti.
Heoi anō, ko te pātahitanga ehara i te rārangi i roto i ngā kararehe e kauhoe ana, e rere rānei.
Me mau tonu te manu i ngā whakarau pūngao o te rere kia mau ai te kaha o te rere.
Kātahi anō ka whai waiora tinana nga kararehe wai maori ki te wai maori.
Mēnā ka pau i te kararehe he nui ake te pūngao matū kei roto, ka penapenatia te nuinga o taua pūngao ki te āhua o ngā ripo hei whakamahi ā muri ake, ā, ko ētahi o taua pūngao hei mahinga ināianei ake (hei tauira, ka tūtakina te pūngao o te rorohiko).
Hei tāpiri atu ki a rātou pokanga kūnatu, he kākano āhua āpiti o te kararehe kōaro pēnei i te ate me te whānautanga hei wāhi o a rātau pūnaha kūnatu.
I te putanga atu o te puku, ka uru mai te kai ki waenganui, koia te wāhanga tuatahi o te piro (ngā piro iti rānei i roto i ngā whāngote) ā, ko te pae matua o te kānatu me te whakawāteatanga.
Ko te whakawhitinga korohū i roto i ngā pūkahukaru e puta ana i roto i ngā rorohiko ātea iti e miriona ana; i roto i nga whāngote me nga ngārara e kiia nei ko te mahi huarangi, e mōhiotia ana hoki ēnei ki nga manu he atria.
Ka tomo ēnei ki roto i nga pukapuka e whāwhā ake ai te tuarua, ki te hīperona whakawhāiti, ki tērā peka ki nga ngongo iti iho, ki nga bronakiko.
E rua ngā momo pūnaha kotinga: tuwhera, katia hoki.
E puta ana te horohorotanga i ngā kararehe i waenganui i ngā momo pūtautau e rua: ngā pūtautau pūhoi me te hāora (paru rānei).
I roto i nga manu me nga whāngote, ka tūhonoa nga pūnaha pūhohe me te pukahu i roto i nga rangatū.
Ko nga whatu o te uaua koi he mea hangai nga mea hangarite, e hiahiatia ana he tāurunga ā-wetereo mai i nga ira hiko.
Ka taea te whakaahua te hukihuki i hangaia hei hīoi, whakarāpopoto, te tetanus rānei, i runga anō i te auautanga o ngā mōrea hohenga.
He ōrite nga tikanga o te kukuti i roto i nga uaua e toru katoa.
Ko ētahi atu kararehe pēnei i te mokemoke, i ngā tōmua kōaro, he ua kōaro, he uaua kōaro, kei roto nei ētahi herenga mātotoru, angiangi, he mea whakaritea kia kaua he kōaro, pēnei i te kōpiupiu, i ngā ua whanau rānei.
Ka taea e rātou te tuku atu, te whiwhi mōhiohio rānei ki ngā pae hoapā e kīa nei ko ngā wetereo.
Ko ngā pūtau pēnei i ngā pūtau o te hunga hiko, pērā i ngā pūtau uaua rānei, ka tātātia rānei ki te whiwhi tohu mai i tētahi atu hunga hiko.
I nga vertebrates, kei roto i te punaha io te punaha io (CNS), tae atu ki te roro me te taura tuaiwi, me te punaha taiao (PNS), kei roto i nga io e hono ana te CNS ki etahi atu waahanga o te tinana.
Kua wehea te PNS ki nga punaha motuhake e toru, te punaha somatic, motuhake, me te punaha io.
Kua whakahohea te pūnaha āmaimai i ngā wā ohotata hei whakaoho i te pūngao, i te wā e whakahohetia ana te pūnaha āmaimairangi rōpūkore ina noho ngā rauropi i roto i tētahi āhua māhorahora.
Ko nga io e puta hāngai ana mai i te pakihi, e kiia ana he pūngao taheke i a rātau e puta ana i te aho tuaiwi e kiia ana ko ngā io tīkokiwi.
I roto i te tangata, ko nga whāriki whetū nui ko te repe tirotiro me nga awatea.
Ka taea te taiaki hei matatini waikawa amino, ngā steroids, ngā eicosanoids, te leukotrienes, te prostaglandins rānei.
Ma te pūngākau whānako e whakaputa ai i nga kēmu whaowhao.
I te nuinga o te wā, ko te apa meroiti tuatoru, ko te mesoderm, ka tipu hoki i waenganui i aua mea.
Ka puta mai te kānatutanga, mā ngā nekenekehanga kanorau e tahuri ai te tini o te pūtau ki roto i ngā apa meroiti e toru he mea noho ki te ectoderm, te mesoderm me te endoderm.
Ka whakaawetia te pāpāhotanga pūkoro e ngā tohu pūtau āpiti pēnei i ngā āhuatanga tipu ka whakawhiti ki ngā pūtau pātata, e kiia nei ko te tohu juxtracrine, ki ngā pūtau tapiri rānei i ngā pūmamao poto, e kiia nei ko te tūtohu parawhārangi.
Ka tukua e te pūnaha ārai urutapu he urupare i āta whakaritea ki ia whakaata mā te ako ki te mōhio ki ngā rāpoi ngota kua tūtakia i mua.
He pūnaha ārai pūtake o te huakita i roto i te momo whākōkī e pare ana i ngā mate huaketo.
Ko ngā whakamāraro o te kauae, tae atu ki te tangata, kei a rātou ngā tikanga ārai mātanga kē atu, tae atu ki te āhei kia āta mōhio ki ngā moromate.
Hei tauira, ko ngā tauira hohenga uka, he whanonga tūturu ā-ira, he whanonga tōtika hoki e taka ana me te kore e ako.
Ko te iwi o ngā rauropi oranga (hangarau) e hāngai ana ki ngā mōtete kāore i te rite ki ngā mōtete kāore e taea (hei tauira, he wai, māmā, māmā, pūmāmā, pāhauhau, hauā, hauā, whenua, me te oneone) o tō rātou taiao, e kīia ana he pūnaha.
Mā te whangai i ngā otaota, i tētahi, ka whai tikanga hira nga kararehe i roto i te nekehanga o te take me te pūngao i roto i te pūnaha.
I hangaia te taiao ā-tinana o te Ao e te pūngao kōmaru me te mātauranga whenua.
Ko te huarere te pāmahana me te mahi timatatanga o ia rā, a, ko te āhua āhuarangi te wawaenga roa o te huarere, ko te tikanga kia wawaenga i te wā e 30 tau te wā.
Ko te hua, ma nga taiao mākū e āhei ai te tipu.
Ka taea te whakatau te tokomahatanga i te wā poto i ngā wā poto mā te whakamahi i te whārite auau tupu o te iwi whānui, ā, ka whakaarohia te whānautanga, te mate, me ngā auau neke atu i te neke.
Ko te tauwhitinga koiora te pānga o te hunga ora tahi i roto i te hapori.
Ko te whakawhitiwhitinga mo te wā roa e kiia ana ko te mahi whakawai.
He rerekē ngā taumata tohu maui i roto i ētahi tukutuku kai, ko te taumata iti rawa ko ngā kaiwhakanao matua (pakiniko aunoa rānei) pēnei i ngā tipu me te kapoke e tahuri ana i te pūngao me ngā rawa ngohengohe hei whāngai matawhenua, ā, ka taea e te toenga o te iwi te whakamahi.
A, ko te hunga e kai ana i nga kaihoko tuarua, he kiritaki pātītī, me ērā atu mea.
Kei ētahi huringa, he puna kei reira tētahi matū e toe ana, e waiwaitia ana rānei mō tētahi wā roa.
Ko te atekōkiri nui rawa atu o te whakamahana ko te mahi o ngā korohū kahu kati, nui atu i te 90% he hāora taikura me te mewaro.
He pānga ki te mahi o ngā pūnaha, e whakarato ana i ngā momo ratonga e whakawhirinaki ana te iwi.
I tōna tikanga, kua whakaurua anō e te wairangi te akoranga o te mātai whakakākā me te kapoke a nga tohunga huaota me nga tohunga pūtaiao, me te mātauranga i ēnei rōpū rauropi e toru e toe ana i roto i te wāhi āwhina o te Rōpū Whakaraupapa o te Rōpū Whakaraupapa.
Ko nga māra hōneta, i te nuinga o te wā e āpiti ana ki nga māngai, he rākau rongoā e whai ana i nga rākau rongoā.
Na ēnei māra i whakawhāiti te mātauranga o nga tipu.
I ngā tau e rua whakamutunga o te rau tau e 20, ka whakamahia e nga kaiwaiata ngā pūkenga o te tātari rāpoi ngota, tae atu ki ngā tāngataira me ngā raupapa pūtauira me te PĪTAUIRA kia pai ake ai te whakarārangi i ngā tipu.
Ka whakatakina e te waituhi hōu ōna pakiaka ki Kariki Tahito, ki Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), he ākonga nō Aristotle nāna i waihanga, i whakamārama hoki i te nui o ōna kaupapa, ā, e mōhiotia whānuitia ana i roto i te iwi pūtaiao he Matua o Botana"."
I panuitia whanui a De Materia Medica neke atu i te 1,500 tau.
I te pokapū o te rautau 16, i whakatuhia nga maara huaota i roto i nga whare wananga Itari.
I tautokona e rātau te tipuranga o te wairangi hai kaupapa mātauranga.
Puta noa i tēnei wā, ka mau tonu te wairangi ki te whakawhāiti ki te rongoā.
I hangaia e Poke tōna ake pūnaha o te taunaha whakatō.
Tērā pea ko te kōwhiringa me te raupapa o ngā pūāhua he mea hangaia mārire mō te tāutunga (pātuhi tātaritanga), e pātata ana rānei ki te raupapa tūturu, tūturu rānei o te tāke i ngā pātuhi ākonga.
I whakatau tēnei i tētahi aronui whakaingoatanga hāngai, wāhanga-rua rānei i reira te ingoa tuatahi e tohu ana i te maku, ā, ko te tuarua i kitea ai te momo i roto i te puku.
Na te whakanui i te mōhio ki te hanga pū tipu, te wetereo me te hurihanga ora, ka ahu mai ki te whakaaro tūturu, he nui ake ngā wehenga atanga māori i waenganui o ngā tipu i te pūnaha ā-waha o Linnaeus.
Ko te mahi a Kataina Esau (1898–1997) i runga i te kikokiko tipu, he tūranga nui tonu no te wairangi hou.
Ko te ariā i hangaia e Henry Kararehe Kaute, ko Arthur Taka me Ngā Mariretanga whānui, pērā i te whakarerekētanga o te ngahere whānui, pērā i te tikanga o te whakarōpū rauropi.
Na te whakahura me te tāutunga o ngā taiaki tipu arikori a Kēri V. Thimann i te tau kotahi mano e 1948 i whakahohetia ai te whakatipu tipu e ngā matū kua hoatu i waho.
Ko ngā whanaketanga o te rau tau 20 i te mahinga pūngao oraora kua ākia e ngā tikanga onāianei o te tātari matū rā, pēnei i te tātaritanga pūtauira, te mātātai māori me te hikotanga.
Mā ēnei hangarau e taea ai te whakamahi hangarauropi o ngā tipu katoa, o te whakatō rānei i ngā āhuatanga pūtau i tupu ki ngā pūtaiao ki te whakawātea i ngā patuiroki, ngā rongoā rānei, i ētahi atu rongoā rānei, tae atu ki te taupānga ā-ringa o ngā hua whakaputa ā-ira i hangaia mō ngā āhuatanga pērā i te hua pai ake.
E whai ana ngā pūnaha o nāianei ki te whakaata, kia kite rānei i ngā pātahitanga hangarau i waenganui i ngā tipu.
Hei hua noa iho o te mahi whakaahua, ka tukuna atu e ngā tipu he hāora ki te hauā, he korohū e hiahiatia ana e te tata o ngā mea ora katoa hei mahi i te whakaora pūkoro.
I roto i te tītoriotanga, ko ngā mea ora katoa i whakawāteatia hei kararehe, otaota rānei, me te wairangi, i hipokina te akoranga a nga mea ora katoa kaore i whakaarotia he kararehe.
Kei roto i "te whakamāramatanga pākaha o ""whakatō", ko ngā "rakau whenua", ngā tītiki rānei, ko ngā kākano, ko ngā kākano, tae atu ki ngā paina, me ngā pūkohukohu) me ngā tuhimuna kōpiko e wātea ana, tae atu ki ngā aru, ngā wheua, te wāwhara, te kōtui hao."
Ko te wāhanga haploid o te kikino, e mōhiotia ana ko te kēmu, e whakangārahu ana i te kikimomo e whāngai ana i roto i ōna whāngai kia iti ake te wāhi o tōna ora, ahakoa i roto i ngā tipu kākano, e whāngaitia ana te kēmu e tōna mātua.
Ko nga paraeobotana e ako ana i nga tipu tahito i roto i te pūkete matawaenga hei whakarato mōhiohio mō te hītori o nga tipu.
Ko tēnei e kīia ana e nga kaitauao te taumata tohu mauī tuatahi.
E āta tirotirohia ana hoki e nga kaiwaiata nga taru, he raruraru tino nui ki te ahuwhenua, me te koiora me te whakahaere i ngā patomate tipu i ngā mahi ahuwhenua me ngā pūnaha māori.
Ko te pūngao kōmā i hopukina e te chlorophyll tētahi i te tīmatanga o te irahiko (ā muri ake ko te rōnaki pū proton) e whakamahia ana hei hanga rāpoi ngota ATP me naDPH e penapena rangitahi ana me te pūngao kawe.
Ko ētahi o nga huka e tahuri ana ki te mātaota e rokohangatia ana ki roto i te kōtae.
Kāore i rite ki ngā kararehe (e kore nei e whai pūwaro), kua whakaritea e ngā tipu me o rātau wākana ārai pākehā ki a rātou karure, tae noa ki te whakarite i a rātou waikawa ngako katoa, me te nuinga o nga waikawa amino.
He lignin nga tipu whenua ka hangaia e te waerau hei whakakaha i ngā pātūtau tuarua o ngā pahekeke me ngā oko xylem kia kore ai e ngahoro ina ngote te wai o te tipu i raro i te āwhina wai.
Ko ētahi atu, pērā i nga hinu hītinitini, he hinu rēmana, he mea whai painga mo tō rātou haunga, he tāwara, he mea kakara (hei tauira, he pēnā ki te rongoā, he rongoā, pērā i roto i te koniumā mai i ngā pahūpū opium.
Hei tauira, ko te rongoā mīharo mamae te rongoā mīharo o te waikawa tītaha, i tuatahi kua taratahitia i te kiri rākau whiro, me te whānui o ngā rongoā whakangāruru opiate pēnei i te hingini, e tangohia ana e te whakarerekētanga matū o te ahotara i whiwhia mai i te papā opium.
Kua whakamahia e te Hunga Māori nga momo tipu hai māuiui mo te māuiui, mate rānei mo te mano tau.
He tauira te huka, te miro, te rinena, te rinena, ētahi momo taura, papa rakau, korakora, ngā pepa me te pepa, he hinu huawhenua, he hua rākau, he hua rākau, he rapa maori, he tauira o nga mea hira kai nga pūtau tipu, o ngā hua tuarua rānei.
Ko ngā hua i hangaia mai i te pūtautau ko te rayon me te tāpana, te whakapiri pepapātū, te pātene pū me te miro pū.
E whakawhirinaki tonu ana ētahi kaiao ki ngā raraunga pirinoa mai i te iwi taketake e kohia ana e nga kairangahau whakatо̄.
E whirinaki ana ngā tipu ki ētahi o ngā āhuatanga tāupe me ētahi take tūmomo i tōna taiao, engari ka taea hoki ēnei take te whakakē.
E tauwhiti ana rātau me ō rātou hoa noho i ngā āhuatanga mokowā i roto i ngā rōpū, iwi whānui me ngā iwi ā iwi e noho ana i te rōpū hai pupuhi.
I kitea e Rangi Mendel ngā ture iranga o te kainga tupu mā te ako i ngā āhuatanga tuku iho pēnei i te hanga i Pisum sativum (pī).
Ahakoa rā, he rerekētanga iranga motuhake i waenganui i nga tipu me ētahi atu rauropi.
Ko te maha o ngā momo witi he hua o ngā rīpeka whiriwhiri- me te intra-tauwhāiti i waenganui i te momo mohoao me to rātau kahu.
I te nui o nga tipu whenua ka hangaia nga tākaro tāne me te wahine e te tangata motuhake.
He tauira te hanganga o nga kōpura tātā i roto i te rīwai.
Ka taea hoki te pā mai te hāpai ki te kākano, e whakaputa kākano ana e mau ana i tētahi emihi ira e ōrite ana ki te matua.
Tērā pea he hua o tētahi tipu whāngai ārai ā-kawe i waenganui i ngā momo rerekē e rua.
Ka taea tonu e ētahi o ngā mahi pakaua ero te whakaputa rere, ki ngā hāwhe kākano rānei, ka whakatū i ngā tokomaha o ngā tangata ōrite.
Ko te tārewa pūnoa he āhuaahua whai hua ma te kākano āhua.
Na te whakaraupapatanga o ētahi atu huinga ira iti rawa, o te raihi (Oryza sativa) me te reheweheto kā, i hangaia ai he momo tauira hira hei mōhio ki ngā ira, ko te pūkoro me te wārihimete koiora o ngā pūroro, ngā pātītī me ngā pūkoro kotahi.
Ko te nuinga o te wāhi āmio, o ngā pī, ngā pī, me te pūkohu Physcomit paepae e whakamahia ana hei ako i te tipu koiora pūtau.
Ka taea hoki te whakahaere i te kīanga ira e te pēhi pūmua e āpiti ana ki ngā rohe whakangū o te DNA me te ārai i te whakaputaina o taua rohe o te waehere DNA.
Kua whakaaturia ētahi huringa rongoā he tīwharawhara, i te wā e tautuhi anō ana ētahi i roto i nga pūtau meroiti.
Kāore i te rerekē i te kararehe, he maha ngā pūtau tipu, o ērā o te parenchyma, kaore e rerekē, e mau tonu ana ki te kaha ki te whakaputa ki tētahi tipu hou.
He rōpū taumaha te kapoke, a, e whakanohoia ana ki ētahi wāhanga maha, ko ētahi e pātata ana ki nga tipu i ētahi atu.
Ko te tauaha o Pōrophyte ko Charophyceae me te whenua e hanga tahi ana i te Rīpoi pūtahi, te kākahu rānei i a Iatopātina.
Ko ngā taputapu kawekawe pteridophytic me ngā xylem pono me te hūme e tāruatia ana e te tātā, e tātānaki ana ki ngā kēmu ora-kore i te wā o te wā Siluriana, ā, ka whakauru atu ki ngā rārangi maha i te tōmuri o ngā Pahuriana me te Tīnini tōmua.
Ko a rātau whāriki kēmu i hangaia mai i ngā mekapahiko e mau tonu ana i roto i ngā whēkanga hanga whāngai (megasporangia) o te sporophyte, he āhuatanga e mōhiotia ana ko te kīmutu.
Ko te wā o nga kākano i mōhiotia tata mai i te wāhanga hou rawa o Devonian Famennian.
Ko nga matū i whiwhi mai i te hau, i te oneone me te wai ka waihanga i te pūtake o ngā pūngao ngota katoa.
Heterotrophs tae atu ki ngā kararehe katoa, ngā kā katoa, te katoa o ngā otaota, me ngā huakita rākau-kore, ka mau i ngā rīpoi rongoā i hangā e ngā pakini whakaahua me te whakaora, te whakamahia rānei i te hanganga o ngā pūtau me ngā pūtau.
Ko te kawenga pūtau-iti o ngā katote, ngā irahiko me ngā rāpoi ngota pērā i te wai me ngā whākōkī puta noa i ngā kiriuhi pūtau.
He hauota, he konurehu, he konurehu, he konurehu, he konupūmā, he konupora, he konupora, he pūngāwhā.
Ka pāpāho tēnei i ngā urupare kōpae huri noa o ngā pū me ngā pūtake ki te mārama me te tō ā-papa.
I kitea te heakinini maori i roto i te witi, he paheke a Hea, he pārōtanga hoki no te whenua maori.
Kai roto rātau i te whakatokonga o te māminga, o te kākano pakari rānei i roto i ngā kākano, i roto i te whakaritenga teitei o te whakatō, mā te whakahaere i te whakaroatanga tātā me te mana puāwaitanga.
I whakaingoatia nā te mea i whakaarotia tuatahitia hai whakahaere i te tangohanga.
Ko tētahi atu wāhanga o nga hītomono ko ngā hāmonaiti, ko te tuatahi i wehe atu i te hinu a Jasminum grandiflorum e whakahaere ana i ngā urupare motu ki te otaota, mā te whakawātea i te kīanga o te tīrapa e hiahiatia ana i roto i te urupare ātete i whiwhi ai ki te tuki whiu.
Kaore e puta i ngā pūtake tūkino, te ateā, te wāwhana, me ngā pūkohukohu, ā, ko te nuinga o te tipu e whai wāhi ana ki te mahi whakaahua.
Ka taea e ngā pūtau o ia pūnaha te waihanga pūtau o ētahi atu pūtau me te whakaputa pūtake rānei.
Ki te ngaro tētahi o ngā pūnaha, ka taea e tētahi te huri anō.
I roto i ngā tipu kawekawe, ko te xylem me te pūkoro ko nga kikowhiti kawe rauemi i waenganui i ngā pūtake me ngā pūtake.
He rau e kohikohi ana i te rā, ā, ka kawea te mahi whakaahua.
He tipu nga tipu o angiosperms, e whai putiputi ana, a, he kākano rāihe.
Ko ētahi o nga tipu e whakawhanau ana i te āhua o te mahi, i te tōkeke, i te tōkeke, ko ētahi i nga tikanga e rua.
Ko te taunahatanga koiora he momo tāke pūtaiao.
Ahakoa kāore ngā pūtaiao e whakaae pēhea te whakarārangi i ngā rauropi, ngā rāpoi ngota rāpoi ngohe, e whakamahi ana i ngā raupapa DNA hei raraunga, he maha ngā arotakenga inātatanei i runga i ngā raina rerekē, ā, ka haere tonu te mahi pērā.
Ka whakakotahitia te tatauranga o ngā rauropi momo puta noa i roto i te Waehere Aowhānui o Te Tūpou mō te kapoke, te ngahau, me ngā otaota (ICN) me te whakahaere i te Rōpū Konganuku o te Ao Whānui.
Ko te ingoa pūtaiao o tētahi tipu e tohu ana i tōna tākupu me tōna momo i roto i te puku, nā te ingoa kotahi o te ao katoa mō ia moroiti.
Ko te pahekotanga te ingoa o te momo.
Ko nga pātahitanga waiata me te tūāhuhutanga o tētahi rōpū rauropi e kiia ana ko tōna hātete.
Hei tauira, ko te momo o Pereskia he rākau, he rakau rānei he rau tūturu.
Me āta whakawātea ngā pātahitanga i runga i ngā pūāhua tiritahi, nā te mea ka āhua ōrite pea ngā tipu ki tētahi i runga i te kunenga ūngutu, e puta takitahi ai ngā pūāhua.
Ko ngā pūāhua pūkenga anake, pēnei i te tīwai o te kōkākī, e whakaatu ana mō te hekenga mai i tētahi tīpuna noa iho.
Ko te rerekētanga he mea whakamahia te waehere iranga ki te whakatau i ngā pātahitanga o te maiora, kaua e whakamahia noatia mā ngā pūāhua e whakatika ana.
Ko te mea e tika ana kia rite ki te whakatau i nga mea katoa i roto i nga mea katoa e pa ana ki a koe, e kore e whakatau i te katoa o nga mea katoa e whakatika ana.
Mā te uiui me pēhea te pātahi o te momo tipu ki a rāua anō ka āhei ngā kaihopu ki te mātau pai ake ki te tikanga o te kunenga o nga tipu.
Ahakoa i nga wā katoa e hiahia ana te tangata ki te hītori māori o ngā kararehe i kitea e rātau i a rātou, ā, ka whakamahia e rātau tēnei mōhiotanga ki te whakakotahi i ētahi momo, e kī ana i ahu mai te mātauranga ā-karaehe i a Aristotle.
I te wā o te Hurihuri me te wā hōu ake o te tohu kararehe o nāianei, i a Koetere Linnaeus, ko Atontōna van Leeuwenhoek, a Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Kari Mendel me ētahi atu tokomaha.
He whakairo ana, he tuhituhi me nga whakairo i Wīwī e hoki ana ki te 15,000 tau e whakaatu ana i nga rārangi, nga hoiho me te tia ki roto i nga taipitopito i āta whakaritea.
Ko te mōhiotanga tuawā o nga kararehe awatea e whakaaturia ana e nga whakaahuatanga tūturu o ngā kararehe mohoao, o te kāinga rānei i te Rāwhiti Tata, i Mehotamia me Ihipa, tae atu ki ngā tikanga me ngā tikanga tāpuipu, ki te rangahau me te hī ika.
I te rau tauwhā o Aristotle, i te rau tauwhā, ka titiro ki ngā kararehe he kaiao ora, e ako ana i to rātau hanganga, te whanaketanga me te tītohunga nui.
E whā rau tau kātahi anō ka tuwheratia e te rata a Rōmana o Galen nga kararehe ki te ako i to rātau kikokiko me te taumahi o nga wāhanga rerekē, nā te mea i rāhuitia te tuakanatanga o te kaitiaki kōrero tangata i taua wā.
I Uropi, i noho nui tonu te mahi a Galen ki te kikokiko, a, kāore e taea te roa, tae noa ki te rau tau 16.
I a rātau anō ka noho ko te rangatiratanga o nga tangata whenua tūturu, i te 18, te 19, me te 20 rau tau, ka nui haere te āhua o te mātauranga karaehe.
Ko enei whanaketanga, tae atu ki nga hua mai i te embryology me te paleontology, i whakahiatotia i roto i te whakaputanga o te 1859 o te ariā a Charles Darwin mo te kukuwhatanga na roto i te kowhiringa taiao; i roto i tenei ka whakatakotohia e Darwin te ariā o te kukuwhatanga rauropi ki runga i te turanga hou, ma te whakamarama i nga tikanga e puta ai, me te whakaatu taunakitanga maataki i pera.
I hoatu e Darwin he aronga hou ki te wetewetetanga me te whaiaroaro, mā te whakakotahi i a rātau ki tētahi ariā koiora noa iho: ko te ariā o te rehu whenua.
Ko te tikanga tōmua kia kitea nga kaiao me te whakarōpū i a rātou e ai ki o rātau āhuatanga, rerekētanga me ōna pātahitanga, a ko te mara tēnei o te kaitiaki tāke.
I whakawaengatia ōna whakaaro ki runga i te wetewetetanga o nga kararehe.
Mai i tēnei wā, kua whakahōutia ēnei whakarōpū kia whakapai ake i te ōritetanga ki te mātāponotanga pūriri o te kōnukutanga pūnoa.
Ko homo te tangata whenua, a, ko nga wahine i whakaritea, ko raua tahi hei hanga i te ingoa momo.
Ko te pūnaha taunahatanga ngoi e kiia ana ko te tāke Linnaean.
Ko te māramatanga o te hanganga me te taumahi o ngā pūtau, he tino nui ki nga pūtaiao koiora katoa.
E arotahi ana ki te mahi tahi a ngā okana me ngā pūnaha o te tinana o te tangata me te kararehe, me te āhua o ta rātau mahi takitahi.
Kua wehe tūturutia ngā akoranga ā-oropi hei oropi, ki te whaiaro āhuatanga kararehe, engari ko ētahi mātāpono o te oropi he ao whānui, ahakoa he aha te mea e ako ana i tētahi āhuatanga moroiti.
Hei tauira, ko te nuinga o te wā ko ngā mātai pūtaiao he whakangungu motuhake ā rātou, pēnei i te hūngāngote, te āhuatanga o te mahi ā-ā-ao, te āhua o te mahi ā-tuhi, te ātahutanga rānei, engari whakamahia aua mea ora hei pūnaha hei whakautu i ngā pātai ahuwhānui mō te kunenga.
I tino āwangawanga nga kaimatai ki te kunenga o te whanonga me te mōhiotanga ki te whanonga e ai ki te ariā o te whiriwhiringa māori.
Ahakoa e whakaharahara ana ngā kaiwhanake i ngā pūkenga mō te koiora rāpoihe, he mea noa iho te paheko i ēnei ki ngā aratuka mai i ngā ira me ngā pūmanawa kikokiko.
Ko te mātauranga koiora ko te akoranga o te pāngatanga o ngā puka ora, o mua, o nāianei, me ngā pātahitanga i waenganui i nga mea ora i roto i te wā.
E whakamahia ana ngā rākau tātai whakapakari o te momo me ngā tāke teitei ake hei ako i te kunenga mai o ngā āhuatanga (hei tauira, ngā āhuatanga kikokiko, rāpoi rānei) me te tuaritanga o ngā rauropi (rārangi kōrero rānei).
Ko nga pūnaha koiora e whakarōpū ana i te momo mā te whakamahi i ngā peka tauwhāiti e toru.
Ko ngā pūnaha o te whakamātautau e tohu ana me te whakarōpū i ngā kararehe i runga anō i ngā wae o te wairua e noho ana i tētahi momo, me tōna hiranga i roto i te kunenga.
E whakamārama ana i te tipua o te aorangi me ōna kaiao.
Ko te tūmo tērā wāhanga o ngā Pūnaha e pā ana ki ngā kaupapa (a) ki (d) ki runga ake nei.
Heoi anō, i roto i te whakamahinga o tēnei wā, ka taea katoa te whakaarotia he kupu taurite tētahi ki tētahi.
Ko ētahi ki ētahi kaupapa herenga anake e pā ana ki ngā pātahitanga puta noa i te wā, ā, ka ōrite te ōrite ki ngā āhuatanga ā-pūtākaro, e mahi whānui ana ki te aroākapa whānui o ngā rauropi.
He nui te awhi o ngā taunaha pūtaiao ki te hopu, ki te pūrongo mōhiohio ki ngā kaipūtaiao kē, me ngā kaihoko.
I roto i te koiora, ko te momo te wae taketake o te taunahatanga me te tūranga tāke o tētahi rauropi, me te wae o te pūtaiao tipua.
Heoi anō, kaore e taea te āta whakamahi i te ariā o ngā pūhaumāota mai i te mea kāore e taea te āta tirotiro i te whakaputanga parahau.
Ka hoatu ki ngā momo katoa (hāunga ngā huaketo) he ingoa wāhanga-rua, he "binomial".
Hei tauira, ko Poa te kaiwhakahaere, ko tētahi o ngā momo e whā o te waikawa o Poa, a ko te kaiwhakahaere te wairua o te momo.
Waihoki, i waenganui i nga rauropi e whānako ana i te āhua ā-tōkeke anake, ka heke iho te ariā o te momo whakaputa uri, ā, ko ia tārua he tini pūwhero.
I kitea ngā momo mai i te wā o Aristotle tae noa ki te rau tau 18 hei kāwai mau e taea ana te whakaritea i roto i te aroākapa, te mekameka nui o te noho.
I tino whānuitia taua māramatanga i te rau tau 20, i roto i nga iranga me te tokomaha o nga tokomaha.
I whakapākahatia e Wēhia Mayr te whakawāteatanga uri, engari, pēnei tēnei, pēnei i ētahi atu ariā momo, he uaua, kore rawa rānei e taea te whakamātautau.
I whakamahia tēnei aratuka hei tikanga mātanga", hei whakatau i te momo, pērā ki Linnaeus i te atatū i te ariā noa."
Hei ture kōnui, kua whakaaro nga kaitohutohu o ngā mōhiohio mō tēnā momo pū bacteria, Archaea rānei me ngā raupapa ira RNA 16S he rite ake i te 97% ki tētahi, me mātua taki e te whakaraupapatanga pītauira-DNA hei whakatau mēnā he ōrite tō rātou momo, kāore rānei.
E whakataurite ana ngā tohutohu hōu i te ōritetanga o te raupapa mā ngā aratuka tātaitanga.
Kei tētahi pātengi raraunga, Waehere Paewaehere o ngā Pūnaha Raraunga Ora (BOLD), ko ngā raupapa waehere pītauira mai i ngā momo 190,000.
Hei tauira, i roto i tētahi akoranga e mahia ana i runga i te kā, mā te ako i ngā pūāhua pūhihihiko mā te whakamahi i ngā momo whakakōaro, i puta ai ngā hua tino tika ki te mōhio ki ngā momo kōhua whānui o ngā ariā katoa i ako.
Engari ko ētahi e āta tiaki ana i tēnei huarahi, e whakaaro ana "te utunga tāke" me te tohu i te tirohanga hāngai hei "taxonomic conservatism”; e mōhio ana he pai ki te whakawehe i ngā momo me te mōhio ki ngā iwi whāiti ake i te taumata momo, nā te mea ko te tikanga o tēnei ka māmā te whakauru atu ki te rārangi whero IUCN, ā, ka āhei rātou ki te kawe mai i ngā ture atawhai me te pūteatanga."
Mēnā e kōrero ana ngā kaipūtaiao ka pā tētahi mea ki ngā momo katoa i roto i tētahi puku, ka whakamahia e rātau te ingoa kākano me te kore ingoa tauwhāiti, pīata rānei.
Kia tae mai ngā mōhiohio anō, ka whakapūtātia, ka whakakāhoretia rānei te ariā.
Ko te whakawehenga o te tāke kia maha, he maha, he mea hou tonu, ko te tāke e kiia ana ko te rihatanga.
I ētahi wā ka whakamahia te kupu kīkihi mō ngā whakangū tere pēnei i ngā huaketo.
I roto i te momo rīngi, i te wā e tika ana te whakapotonga o ngā mema o ngā iwi whānui pātata i roto i tētahi awhe tuari motukore, engari kāore ngā mema o ngā iwi whānui tawhiti.
Nā reira ka puta he uaua ki tētahi momo tērā e whakawhiriwhiri ana ki te whakatōreatanga.
Kei te āhua te whakamōtetetanga i runga i te mehua o te taratahitanga whakaputa, he rere whakapapa kua whakahekea.
Ka taea e te huakita te whakawhiti i ngā whiri me ngā huakita o ētahi atu momo, tae atu ki ētahi o ngā mea pātata mai i ngā rohe pātata rerekē, mā te tātari i ō rātou pātahitanga e uaua ana, ka whakaiti hoki i te ariā o tētahi momo huakita.
He maha nga take i puta i nga kīnga mōkihi, tae atu ki ngā mahi puia, te rerekētanga o te āhuarangi, me ngā rerekētanga o te hihi mokowā, o te takiwā rānei, ā, he pānga nui ō rātau ki te karaihe mātauranga o te Ao, o te hauā, o te mata whenua me ngā wai.
E kī ana ētahi kaimātaki he papā tūturu i waenganui i te hiahia kia mārama ki ngā tukanga o te whakamātautau me te hiahia tautuhi me te whakakāwai.
Ko tētahi o ngā kēhi tauhira i Amerika ki te Raki ko tērā o ngā ruru pūkenga ki te raki i parea, e whakarihariha ana ki te ruru kāore i āraitia e California, me te ruru kua āraia; Na tēnei i puta ai ki nga tautohetohe ture.
I whakaahuatia he āhua e te tiria e ōna mema katoa, ko te taitamariki e tuku ana i ētahi rerekētanga e taea e o rātau mātua.
I whakapūtātia e ia te ariā mo te aroākapa tāke o te taunahatanga i runga anō i ngā āhuatanga mātakitaki, ā, he mea whakaata i ngā pātahitanga māori.
I roto i tana whakaaro tohutohu i te tau 1809, i whakamāramatia e Jean-Baptiste Lamarck i te whakawhitinga o te momo, e tono ana kia hurihia te momo i roto i te wā, i tētahi wehenga wawe i te whakaaro o ngā Aristotelian.
Ko Genus (plural genera) he tūranga tāke e whakamahia ana i roto i te taunaha koiora o te kaiora me ngā rauropi parawae, me ngā huaketo hoki.
Tauira Ko Panthera leo (raiona) me Panthera onca (jaguar) nga momo e rua i roto i te puninga Panthera.
He tauira botanical ko te Hibiscus arnottianus, he momo ake o te puninga Hibiscus taketake ki Hawaii.
Ko ngā ingoa e wātea ana ko ērā i whakaputaina e ai ki te Waehere Aowhānui o te Tohutohu, ā, kāore anō kia tāmia e ngā kōwhiringa whai ake a te Komihana Ao Whānui i runga i te TūtohuTanga Arawhiti (ICZN); ko te ingoa tuatahi mō tētahi tāke (hei tauira, ko te tākupu) me tīpako hei ingoa tika"" (i.e., ināianei, kua whakaaetia rānei) mō te tāke e pātai ana."
I te wairangi, he rite tonu ngā ariā, engari he rerekē ngā tapanga.
Heoi anō, he maha ngā ingoa kua tautapahia (tērā pea ka pōhēhētia) ki te ira whakapapa rerekē atu rānei.
He homoma te ingoa e rua nga mea rerekē.
Heoi anō, e whakaaetia ana kia mau i tētahi ingoa pūtaiao e whakamahia ana hei ingoa whānui (te ingoa rānei o te tāke i tētahi atu tūnga) i tētahi kāinga rangatiratanga e whakahaeretia ana e tētahi waehere tātaitai kē.
Hei tauira, i roto i nga ngarara (kore-manu), e 1180 pea ona puninga, ko te nuinga (>300) he 1 noa nga momo, ~360 kei waenganui i te 2 me te 4 momo, 260 he 5–10 momo, ~200 he 11–50 ngā momo, ā, e 27 noa iho ngā puninga kua neke atu i te 50 ngā momo.
Ko tēhea momo e whakaritea ana ki tētahi kōneke, he pai noa iho.
Ko te mea nō tētahi whānau—mēnā rānei e tika ana kia mōhiotia tētahi whānau i whakaahuatia — ka tonoa, kia whakatauria e te hunga tāke.
I te nuinga o te wā kāore he whakaaetanga pū, he rerekē nga tūranga tāke e mau ana ia ki tētahi tūnga rerekē.
I kōkuhua rātau e Mikaera Novakō (1986) ki taua tūnga kotahi.
Kaore he ture tūmanako mo te whakaahua i te karaehe, engari mo nga kararehe rongonui, tērā pea he whakaaro.
Ināianei he uaua te kōrerorerotia nga karaehe.
I runga i te whakaritenga ā-waha, ka taea te whakaaro hei rōpū rauropi i runga anō i te whakaritenga ahuwhānui o te mahere tinana.
Nō reira ka taea te hanumi, te ritua phyla rānei ki te kitea mena e pātahi ana rātou ki tētahi, kāore rānei.
Nā te whakamāramatanga a Budd rāua ko Kahana, ka tautuhia tētahi phylum e tētahi huinga pūāhua i tiria e ōna māngai ora katoa.
Heoi anō, he pūāhua i runga anō, he ngāwari noa iho te hoatu ki te pūkete anga.
Heoi anō, he uaua te whakaū i te moe no te rōpū karauna o tētahi phylum, nā te mea me whakaatu tētahi pūāhua ahurei ki tētahi huinga roto o te rōpū karauna.
Ko te ripanga i raro nei e whai ana i te pūnaha a Pāpare-Wāhitau whai mana (ahakoa tohetohe) i te wehenga o "Plantae" me Archaeplastida, he rōpū kei roto ko Viridiplantae me ngā wāhanga algal Rhodophyta me Glaucophyta.
Ka taea te whakamahi i te wehenga Pinophyta mō ngā kōnohete katoa (i.e. tae atu ki ngā hima, te kirokiko me ngā kōpikopiko), mō ngā koromeke anake rānei pērā ki raro nei.
He tāke taumaha te protista, he iti iho te manako ki nga kaimātai koiora o nāianei i o mua.
I whakatakotoria e Kōrero Linnaeus (1707–1778) nga tūāpapa mō ngā tatauranga koiora o nāianei, e mana ana ināianei e ngā Waehere Tātaitai, i te tau kotahi mano 1735.
I te tau 1937, na Édouard Chatton i whakauru nga kupu "prokaryote" "me" "eukaryote" "ki te wehewehe i enei rauropi."
I mohiotia e Robert Whittaker tetahi atu rangatiratanga mo nga Harore.
Ko nga rangatiratanga e rua i toe, ko Protista me Monera, i uru atu ki nga koroni pukoro reicular me te ngawari.
I etahi atu punaha, penei i te punaha a Lynn Margulis mo nga kingitanga e rima, ko nga tipu ko nga tipu whenua anake (Embryophyta), me te Protoctista he whakamaarama whanui ake.
Na te mahi ā-hangarau i te tāpepehiko irahiko i whakaaetia ai te wehenga o ngā Chrom piritene i te kāwanatanga o Plantae.
Kātahi anō, ka kitea ētahi rōpū rūpahu kāhore nei i mau i te pūkenga.
I ātetetia tēnei huihuinga ki te wairangi o Metakaryota, ka whakarōpū tahi i ērā atu kingitanga tukitū e rima (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae, me Chromēhi).
Kāore anō a Whari-Smith kia whakaae ki te hiranga o te tino Euteria–Archaeteria wehewehe mā te Woese me ētahi atu, ā, e tautokona ana e te rangahau o nā noa nei.
Kāore e whakaae ana a Wharew-Smith ki te whakaritenga kia tika te tāke (holophyletic"" i roto i tōna tapanga).
Na ngā nekenekehanga mātauranga hātepe i whakaae kia mōhio a Kawi-Wāhitau mō ngā mea katoa i whakaaro ai teyla hei pūrangaranga (i.e. nō mua, kua ngaro tuaruatia tō rātou mārau, i te nuinga o te wā, mā te huri i aua mea hei okana hōu: Hāroroto.
I runga anō i ēnei akoranga RNA, i whakaaro ai a Kōhake Māui e taea te whakawehe i te ora ki ngā wehenga nui e toru, ā, e kīia ana ko rātou he tauira "toru kīngitanga matua, tauira ""urkingdom"" rānei."
Na te pouri i wehewehe ai ngā huatau (i whakawātea i mua hei Kingdom Monera) ki ngā rōpū e rua, e kīa nei ko Euteriria me te Archaeteria, e kī ana he nui te rerekētanga iranga i waenganui i ēnei rōpū e rua, i waenganui i aua rōpū me ngā eukaryoita katoa.
I puritia e rātou ko ngā rōpū monopōpū anake me whakaae hei rārangi taketake i roto i tētahi taunahatanga, ā , i mua rā anō te tikanga o tēnei huarahi (e hiahiatia ana "ngā tini kē o ngā kingitanga ā-eukaryotic ināianei – kua taea ināianei te wehe i ngā eukaryotes ki "ētahi rōpū nui noa iho"."
Nāna i whakawehe ngā eukaryotes kia ono "ngā rōpūkarere ōrite."
E whakaarotia ana he tawhiti ake nga tipu e pā ana ki nga kararehe me nga kāhua whakarewa.
Ko ngā tohenga kotahi tekau ki a ia ko te mea e herea ana ngā pirinoa pūtautau e kore ana e whakangaro i te metabolisme, ā, kāore e taea te tukurua anō i waho o te pūtau kaihautū.
Ko ngā mea e rua tuatahi he pūngao pūkoro, he mea pūtau-tahi rānei, he ūhāhā rānei kei ōna pūtau he karihi hīrau, he kiriuhi kore rānei.
Ko ngā āhuatanga ā-roto, ko ngā mea ora e tino tōtika ana i roto i ngā taiao tino tote, me ngā pēpe, he mea ora i roto i ngā taiao tino wera, he tauira o Archaea.
E rua nga tauira o te huakitai me te pūhautere.
Ko te kunenga he rerekētanga i roto i ngā āhuatanga tūturu o te iwi koiora i tua atu i nga whakatupuranga whai muri.
Ka puta te kunenga ina ngā tukanga waiata pēnei i te tīpakonga māori (tae atu ki te tīpakonga tōkai) me te mānu ā-ira ki runga i tēnei tāupetanga, ka puta ai ētahi āhuatanga kia ngātahi, ka āhua noa rānei i roto i te iwi whānuitanga.
Ko te ariā pūtaiao o te kunenga mai i te tīpakonga maori i whakahaeretia e Charles Darwin rāua ko Awhereere Russel Wāri i te waenganui o te rau tau 19, ā, i āta whakaritea ki roto i te pukapuka a Darwin On the Origin of Species.
Nā reira, i roto i ngā whakatipuranga o muri ake ka whakahōutia ngā mema o te iwi whānui e ngā tīpuna o nga mātua ki ngā āhuatanga manakohia nāna rātau i āhei ai ki te ora, ki te tāuri i o rātau taiao ake.
Kei roto i te pūkete fossil tētahi nekeneke atu i te kauwhata hangarau o mua, ki ngā matariki mōkito, ki ngā rauropi pūtau maha.
I rapua e ia ngā whakamāramatanga o ngā āhuatanga tūturu i ngā ture ōkiko, he ōrite ki ngā mea katoa e kitea ana, ā, kāore i hiahiatia kia pā mai ētahi kāwai maori pūmau, te raupapa waimeha rānei.
I mōhiotia māramatia e te taunahatanga koiora i whakaritea e Piki Linnaeus i te 1735 te āhua aroākapa o ngā pātahitanga momo, engari i tirohia tonutia te momo hei rite tonu ki tētahi mahere a te Atua.
I whakataua ēnei whakaaro e te hunga tūturu, he taurangi kore tautoko.
I āta whakaawetia e Tētahi Tuhinga i runga i te Kaupapa Here o te Iwi Whānui (1798) nā Thomas Robert Malthus, i kī a Darwin mā te tokomaha o te iwi whānui ka tae atu ki tētahi whawhai"ki te noho"" i reira ngā tāupetanga manakohia i te wā i ngaro ai ētahi atu."
I whakawhanakehia e Darwin tana ariā mо̄ te " whiriwhiringa taiao " mai i te 1838 me te tuhi i tana " pukapuka nui " mо̄ te kaupapa i te wā i tukuna atu ai e Alfred Russel Wallace i tētahi putanga o te ahua rite tonu i te tau 1858.
Ki tēnei mutunga, ka whāia e Darwin tōna ariā tauwhāiti o te pangenesis.
Hei whakamārama he pēhea te take o ngā taupēnga hou, ka hangaia e de Vries tētahi ariā irakētanga nāna i whakaae ki tētahi kōnarau rangitahi i waenganui i te hunga i whakaae ki te kunenga o Darwinianā me ngā kairangirangi e haumi ana ki te de Vries.
Na Te tānga o te hanganga o te DNA na James Watson rāua ko Francis Crick me te wāhi āwhina a HōtētiTiri I te tau1953 i whakaaturia ai he tikanga ōkiko mo te kainga tupu.
I te 1973, ka kii te kaimatai koiora whaanui a Theodosius Dobzhansky "kaore he mea whai kiko i roto i te koiora, engari ki te maarama o te whanaketanga" e whakaatu ana, e matapae ana hoki i nga korero ka kitea mo te ao o te ao. "
Ko te huinga katoa o ngā āhuatanga matatū e hanga ana i te hanganga me te whanonga o te rauropi, e kiia ana ko tōna tohuāhua.
Hei tauira, i puta mai te kiri rā i te whakawhitinga i waenganui i te momoira me te hihi o te tangata; Koia i kore ai e tukua atu te ra ki nga tama a te iwi.
Ko te pītauira he whā nga momo turanga e whā.
Ko ētahi wāhanga o te rāpoi pītauira e whakapūtā ana i tētahi wae taumahinga kotahi, ko te tūāpapa; He rerekē nga raupapa o nga turanga o nga tīra rerekē.
Mēnā he rerekē te raupapa pītau ki tētahi mawhitiwhiti, ka kiia ngā momo rerekē o tēnei raupapa ko ngā irainga.
Heoi anō, ahakoa kei te mahi tēnei āhuatanga ngāwari i waenganui i te āhuatanga i ētahi kēhi, he matatini ake te nuinga o ngā āhuatanga, ā, ka whakahaeretia e te āhuatanga ine nui (ngā kī tauwhiti maha).
Ko te tohu methylation DNA ko te chromatin, ngā koromeke o te tinana, te huihuinga ira nā te whakararuraru RNA me te whakaritenga ahu-toru o ngā pūmua (pēnei i ngā kōataata) ko ngā wāhi i kitea ai ngā pūnaha taonga rongoā i te taumata rauropi.
Hei tauira, ko te kainga rauropi mā te tukanga hanganga ā-rauropi e tautuhia ana e ngā ngohe auau me te auau o ngā rauropi i tō rātou taiao.
Ahakoa te whakataki pūmau o te tāupetanga hou puta noa i te irakētanga me te rerenga ira, he ōrite te nuinga o te huānga o tētahi momo ki ngā tātai katoa o taua momo.
Ko tētahi wāhanga nui o te tāupetanga mо̄ te tokomaha i takea e te rerekētanga ā iwi.
Ka ngaro atu te rerekētanga ina tae atu tētahi ārai hou ki te wāhi o te whakamau — ina ngaro atu rānei i te tokomaha, ka whakakapi katoa rānei i te ārai tupuna.
Kia puta ngā irakati, ka huri pea i te hua o te ira, ka ārai rānei i te mahi a te ira, kāore rānei he pānga.
Ko ngā tārua tāpiri o te tūturu he pūtake matua o te rawa mata e hiahiatia ana mō te tīneke hou.
Ka taea te whakaputa i te tīmatanga hōu mai i tētahi ira tupuna ina whakangū te tārua me te tiki i tētahi taumahi hōu.
Ka taea hoki e te whakatupuranga o tētahi tīra hou te whakauru atu ki ētahi wāhanga iti o ētahi tīni, me ēnei kongakonga ka whakatakoto anō hei hanga i ngā pahekotanga hōu ki ngā taumahi hōu.
Kāore te tāhekotanga me te pāhonotanga anō e huri i ngā auautanga ira katoa, engari me huri kē ko ēhea ira katoa e pāhono ana ki a rātou, ka whakaputa i ngā uri me ngā pahekotanga hōu o ngā ira katoa.
Ko te utu tuatahi, ko tētahi anake o ngā momo ā-wahine e rua e āhei ana ki te tamariki.
Heoi anō, ko te whakaputa uri tōkai te tikanga pūnoa i waenganui i ngā āhuatanga ā-iroaro me ngā rauropi maha.
Kei roto i te whakawhitinga ira i waenga i ngā momo te hanganga o ngā rauropi hirau me te whakawhitinga ira whakapae.
Ko te whakawhitinga whakapae o ngā tīnihi mai i ngā huakita ki ngā eukaryotes pēnei i te whakapae o ngā īnihi Saccharomyces cerevisiae me te adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus kua puta mai.
He rerekē ngā āhuatanga e whakarato ana i ngā rerekētanga o te noho ora me te pūreireitanga (toa pārōnaki).
Nā reira, ko ngā āhuatanga me ngā āhuatanga e whai wāhi ana ki a rātau mō ā rātou tauwhāinga, tērā pea ka puta atu ō rātou āhuatanga ki te whakatupuranga o muri atu i te hunga whai āhuatanga kaore e whakarato i te painga.
Ko te ariā matua o te whiringa māori, ko te tino oratanga o te rauropi.
Hei tauira, mēnā ka tere te ora o te rauropi, me te tere te hua, engari he iti rawa ōna uri, he ngoikore rawa kia ora ai, he iti noa iho te wāhi iranga o tēnei moroiti ki ngā whakatupuranga ā muri ake, ā, ka iti rawa te kaha.
Ko nga tauira o ngā āhuatanga ka taea te whakanui ake i te kaha, ka whakarei ake te noho ora me te nui ake o te āhuatanga.
Heoi anō, ahakoa ka hoki whakamuri te ahunga o te tīpakonga ki tēnei āhuatanga, kāore pea ngā āhuatanga i ngaro i mua i te hurihuri anō ki te āhua ōrite (tirohia te ture a Dollo).
Ko te tuatahi he tīpakonga aronga, he neke i roto i te uara wawaenga o tētahi āhuatanga puta noa i te wā—hei tauira, ka pōturi rawa te whiwhi a ngā moroiti.
Whakamutunga, i te whakaū i te tīpakonga, he tīpakonga ki ngā uara āhuahira tino hōhā rawa i ngā taha e rua, e heke ai te tāupenga huri noa i te uara wawaenga me te iti iho te rerenga.
Mā tēnei mōhiotanga whānui o te āhua, ka taea e ngā mātai pūtaiao te whakarite i ngā tōpana motuhake, ā, he mea noho tahi he tīpakonga māori.
Heoi anō, he iti te mokatere o te tauhohenga anō (tata ki te rua ngā takahanga ia whakatupuranga).
Ko tētahi huinga ira katoa e tukua ana i tētahi rōpū, e kiia ana he momo āhua.
Ka tū tēnei neke atu inā mutu ka mau te ārai, mā te ngaro atu i te tokomaha, i te whakakapi rānei i ērā atu ārai katoa.
Ko te ariā kūpapa o te kunenga rāpoi rārōpū, ko te nuinga o ngā huringa rōpū, ko te hua o te whakamautanga o ngā irakētanga kūpapa mā te tere o te ira.
Heoi anō, ko tētahi putanga hōu ake, tautoko pai ake hoki o tēnei tauira ko te ariā tata ki te kūpapa, i reira ko te irakētanga e noho kūpapa ana i roto i te iwi whānui iti, kāore i te kūpapa i roto i te nuinga o te iwi whānui.
Ehara te tau o ngā tangata i roto i te iwi whānui i te mea takenui, engari he mehua kē e mōhiotia ana ko te rahi o te iwi whānui tōtika.
Ko te nohoanga, te kore rānei o te rerenga ira, ka huri tūturu te huarahi o te kunenga.
I roa te wā i whakamahia ai tēnei tohenga ātete ki te ākiri i ngā āhuatanga ā roto i te kunenga, tae noa ki te wā kawea e te wā rāpoi ngoikore te huamoni whakahōu ki te kunenga kūpapa.
Hei tauira, he rite tonu te whakatara o te rītaha irakati i roto i ngā tauira mo te whakamahinga kōtiro.
He rerekē te kōkuhutanga vs. ka tītaha te muku i roto i ngā tāke rerekē, ka āhei ki te kunenga mai i ngā rahinga huinga rerekē.
Ko te whakaaro o nāianei mo te āhua o te tītaha irakati e whakaata ana i tētahi ariā rerekē mai i tērā o Hātaane me Hīnga.
Ka taea hoki e ngā rauropi te urupare ki te tīpakonga mā te mahi tahi i a rātou, i te nuinga o te wā mā te āwhina i ō rātou whanaunga, mā te whakauru rānei ki te tūpono whai hua.
Ko te tonotono e tohutoro ana ki te kunenga e puta ana ki runga ake rānei i te taumata momo, i roto i tētahi whakamātautautanga me te whakangaro; a, e tohu ana te maiorooro i ngā huringa wairangi iti iho i roto i tētahi momo, i te iwi whānuitanga rānei, i tētahi o ngā neke i te auautanga me te urutaunga ā-ira.
Heoi anō, i roto i te tonotonotanga, he hira pea ngā āhuatanga o te momo katoa.
Ko te mōhiotanga noa he whāinga whai whāinga, he mahere mo te wā roa, he āhuatanga taketake rānei mō te "kauneke, e whakaaturia ana i roto i ngā whakapono pēnei i ngā pēnei i ngā kanorau me te hurihanga; ahakoa rā, kāore he whāinga wā roa o te kunenga, ā, kāore i te mea kia nui ake te uaua o te whiwhinga."
Tērā anō hoki, ka pā te kupu urutaunga ki tētahi āhuatanga e hira ana mō te oranga ora o te rauropi.
Ko te āhuatanga urutau he aronga o te tauira whanaketanga o te rauropi e whakahohe, e whakarei ake ai rānei i te tūponotanga o taua rauropi e ora ana, e whakangaro ana.
Ko ētahi atu tauira ko ngā huakita Escherichia konui te āheitanga ki te whakamahi i te waikawa korikori hei nuka māuiui i roto i tētahi whakamātautau taiwhanga taiwhenua, e tipu ana te Flavo bacteriaium i tētahi whākōkī pukapuka kōrero e āhei ai ēnei hua o te whanaketanga nilona, me te whenua pirīpako Sphingobium e neke ana i tētahi ara rorohiko hōu rawa e whakaiti ana i te parekone
Nā tērā pea he rerekē ngā taumahi o nga hanganga whai rōpū ā-roto ōrite i roto i ngā rauropi whai pānga.
Heoi, no te mea e pā ana te katoa o ngā mea ora ki tētahi whānui, ahakoa he āhua iti, kahore rānei he ōritenga hanga, pēnei i te arthropoda, i nga whatu whāinga, i nga whatu tuara, i ngā ringa me ngā parirau o nga aroaroaro me ngā kōhatu, ka taea te whakawhirinaki ki tētahi huinga whānui o ngā tīra homologoa e whakahaere ana i to ratou whakaminenga me ā rātou mahi; E kiia ana tēnei he mātauranga hōhonu.
Kei roto i ngā tauira ko ngā kikokiko, ko ngā toenga kāore i te mahi o ngā whatu i roto i te ika kāpō ana e noho ana, he parirau i ngā manu rererangi, te aroaro o ngā wheua kōpiupi i roto i ngā tohorā, me ngā āhuatanga tōkai i roto i ngā āhuatanga rauropi i roto i te tāruatanga ā-waha.
Ko tētahi tauira ko te mokomoko a Awherika, ko Holaspis guentheri, nāna i tino papatahi te māhunga mo te huna i roto i ngā kariki, e kitea ana mā te titiro atu ki ōna whanaunga tata.
Ko tētahi atu tauira ko te kimi whākōkī mai i te karihikēhi me ngā pūngao xeno panuku hei pūmua hanganga e kiia ana he mātao tioata i roto i ngā whatu kaiao.
Kua kitea e ēnei akoranga ka taea e te kunenga te whakarerekē i te whanaketanga kia puta ai he hanga hou, pērā ki nga hanganga wheua nekeneke e tipu ana ki roto i te kauae o ētahi atu kararehe, kāore anō kia hanga i tētahi wāhi o te taringa waenganui i te whāngote.
Mā ēnei huringa o te momo tuarua kātahi anō ka take i ngā urutaunga hou i te momo tuatahi.
Hei tauira, kei waenganui i ngā tipu me te mīhini mōkihizala e tipu ana i runga i ō rātou pakiaka, hei āwhina i te tipu ki te ngongo i ngā nuka mai i te oneone.
Ko nga tautangata i waenganui i ngā rauropi o te momo kotahi kua huri anō.
I konei, ka urupare mai ngā pūtau tōpū ki ngā tohu tauwhāiti e tohutohu ana i a rātou, mehemea rānei ka tipu, kia noho tonu, ka mate rānei.
He maha ngā huarahi hei tautuhi i te ariā o te "momo."
Ahakoa te rerenga kētanga o ngā ariā momo, ka taea ēnei ariā te whakauru ki tētahi o ngā tohu hinengaro whānui e toru: te whakapotonga, te rauropi me te rongoā whakangākau.
Ahakoa tana whakamahinga whānui me te wā roa, kāore te BSC pēnei ki ētahi atu i te whai tautohetohe, he tauira nā te mea kāore e taea te hoatu i ēnei ariā ki ngā āhuatanga, ā, e kiia nei ko te raruraru momo.
Ka pōturi pea te rerenga ira i tēnei tukanga mā te hora i ngā taupēnga iranga hou ki ērā atu iwi whānui.
I tēnei take, ka rite tonu pea te whakawhiti i te momo e pātata ana, engari ka tīpakohia ngā kawekawe, ā, ka noho motuhake tonu te momo.
Kua kitea he maha ngā wā i raro i ngā here whakahaere o te taiwhanga (tirohia ngā whakamātautanga taiwhanga o te whakamātautau) me te āhua o te ao.
Ko te tino pūnoa o ngā kararehe ko te whakamōhiotanga ā-kano, e taka ana i roto i te iwi whānui i te wāhi matawhenua, pēnei i te whakawehenga kongakonga, he hekenga rānei nā te whānuitanga o te wāhi noho.
Ko te aratau tuarua o te whakamōtekete ko te whakamōtetetanga pākaha, e taka ana ina noho motuhake ngā iwi whānui iti o ngā rauropi ki tētahi taiao hou.
Ko te aratau tuatoru ko te whakamōtetetanga ā-rōpū.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka puta tēnei rerekētanga i roto i te taiao i roto i te wāhi noho o te mātua.
Ko te tīpakonga ki te whakapotonga ki te iwi whānui mātua tairongo-konganuku i puta ai tētahi huringa ā-ā-nuku i te wā puāwaitanga o ngā tipu ā-mētara, ā, kātahi anō ka whakaputa i te taratahitanga rerekētanga katoa.
He āhua kore nei tēnei puka mai i te iti o te rerenga ira ka tangohia pea ngā rerekētanga iranga i waenganui i ngā wāhanga o te iwi whānui.
Ehara tēnei i te mea noa iho ki ngā kararehe, he āhua hē te kahu kararehe.
Mā tēnei e taea ai ngā tae o ia momo mātua ki te hanga i ngā takirua ōrite i te wā o te pūira, nā te mea e whakaatu kētia ana ia wā matua e tētahi takirua kē.
He pono, he pūtake noa iho pea te whakawhanaketanga o roto i tētahi momo, i te hāwhe o ngā chromosome pūrua i te rerenga me ngā rauropi kāore i taea te whakatupu me ngā rauropi kāore i oti.
Tata tonu ki ngā momo kararehe, me ngā momo otaota katoa kua noho i runga i te Whenua, kua ngaro ināianei, a, ko te ngahoro te tukunga whakamutunga o te katoa o ngā momo.
Ahakoa te whakaaro e ngaro ana, neke atu i te 99 ōrau o ngā momo katoa i noho mai i Te Ao, e tata ana ki te 1 tīariari te momo i runga i te Whenua i tēnei wā me te kotahi manotanga anake o te ōrau i whakaahuatia.
I te wā o te Era o Eoarchean, i muri i te tīmatanga o te tīmatanga o te kaha o te tohu o te ora tōmua o te ao, i te 3,5 billion tau ki mua, i muri i te tīmatanga o te kirinuku ā-nuku ki te whakatoka i muri i te whānuitanga o te whakarewa o Hadean Eon.
"Nā te kōrero mō ngā kitenga o Ahitereiria, ka tuhituhi a StephenGor Hedges, ""Mēnā ka tere te ora i runga i te Ao, koia ka pūnoa i te ao nui."""
Ko ngā whakatau tata i runga i te tau o te momo o te Ao o nāianei e awhe mai i te 10 miriona ki te 14 miriona, tata ki te 1,9 miriona kua whakaritea kua tapaina, ā, 1,6 miriona kua tuhingatia ki tētahi pātengi raraunga pūtahi, 80 ōrau kāore anō kia whakaaturia.
Ko te take tuatahi i whakapakaritia ai ngā mea ora noa e whā nga mea ngāwari mō ngā rauropi: Tuatahi, he tūaritanga taunaha ā rātou kāore e taea te whakamāori mā te urutaunga paetata.
Tuawhā, ka taea te whakawātea i ngā rauropi mā te whakamahi i ēnei ritenga ki roto i te aroākapa o ngā rōpū whakakōpaetia, e rite ana ki tētahi rākau whānau.
Ka hoki whakamuri tēnei tiro ki tētahi whakaaro i kōrero pototia e Darwin, engari i waiho ā muri ake.
Mā te whakataurite i nga kikokiko o te momo hōu me te korehāhā, ka taea e nga mātauranga paraeono te whakapōkai i nga rārangi o aua momo.
Kātahi anō ka puta mai te whakaaturanga mo te hekenga pūnoa i te akoranga o ngā ōritenga pūnoa ki waenganui i te rauropi.
I puta mai nga pūtau ārai whakawhiti i waenganui i te 1.6 me te 2.7 billion tau ki mua.
Ko tētahi atu whakapaenga o ngā rauropi pēnei ōrite, i ahu atu ki te hanganga o ngā kōwaro i roto i te kapoke me nga tipu.
I te Hānuere 2016, i pūrongo ngā kaipūtaiao, tata ki te 800 miriona tau ki muri nei, kua whakaae pea tētahi huringa iranga iti i roto i te rāpoi kotahi e kiia ana ko GK-PID te haere i ngā rauropi pūtau kotahi ki tētahi o ngā pūtau maha.
Kua marohitia ētahi momo keu mō te pahūtanga Cambrian, tae atu ki te whakatōpū hāora i te haurangi mai i te whakaahuatanga.
Ko te whiringa tangata ko te whiringa hangai o nga āhuatanga i roto i te tokomaha o nga rauropi.
Ko ngā pūmua me ngā āhuatanga whai tikanga, kua huri te porotīni me te tīpakotaga (hei tauira, ko ngā whākōkī whakakē me ngā parenga hōu) i roto i tētahi tukanga e kiia nei ko te wheoritanga hāngai.
Na te tāuri i ngā iwi kē o tēnei ika matapo i puta mai ai ētahi uri me ētahi whatu taumahinga, i te mea he rerekē ngā irakētanga i puta ki ngā iwi kē i huri i roto i nga ana rerekē.
He nui ngā mate tangata ehara i te āhua rerekore, engari e taea ana te kunenga.
Tērā pea, kei te anga atu tātau ki te mutunga o te ora tōtika o te nuinga o ngā rongoā paturopi e wātea ana, me te matapae i te kunenga me te āheinga o tātau patomate me te whakatakoto rautaki i ngā rauemi hei pōturi, hei whakahārewa rānei, e hiahiatia ana kia hōhonu ake te mōhiotanga o ngā āinga matatini e whakahaere ana i te wāhanga rāpoi ngota.
E whakamahia ana e ia nga rataki whanaketanga hei whakatika i ngā raruraru pūkaha matatini.
I ētahi whenua, i tua atu i Te Hononga o Amerika, nā ēnei taumahatanga i waenganui i te pūtaiao me te hāhi whakapono kua whakararuraru i te tautohe o te hanganga o nāianei– he papā whakapono e arotahi ana ki ngā tōrangapū me te mātauranga tūmatanui.
Nā te whakataunga whakamātau Hōkai o te tau 1925, i tino āhua kore ai te kaupapa i roto i ngā pukapuka koiora tuarua o Amerika mō tētahi whakatupuranga, engari i āta tīmataria anō ā muri ake, ā, i parea ā-turetia i te whakataunga Epperson v. Akenoka o te tau 1968.
Ko te tīpakonga tūturu te noho rerekētanga me te tāruatanga o ētahi tangata nā ngā rerekētanga o te tohuāhua.
Kai roto i ngā tokomaha katoa o nga rauropi te rerekētanga.
Kei roto i te taiao o te huinga te koiora rāpoihe i roto i te pūtau, ētahi atu pūtau, ētahi atu tāngata, iwi whānui, momo, tae atu ki te taiao aropōro.
Ko te tīpakonga tūturu he kahu o te koiora o nāianei.
Ko te ariā o te whiringa tūturu i tupu i te korenga o te āta whakaaro tika; I te wā o te tuhituhi a Darwin, kāore anō te pūtaiao kia hanga i nga kaupapa iranga o nāianei.
I whakahōutia nga tautohe māori i te rau tau 18 e Pierre Louis Maupertuis me ētahi atu, tae atu ki te tipuna o Darwin, ko Esimātau Darwin.
Na te angitu o tēnei ariā i āta mōhio ki te tauine nui o te wā ā-nuku, ā, ka āhei te whakaaro mō tērā ngā huringa iti, kāore e kitea i roto i ngā whakatipuranga whai muri ka puta mai pea he hua i te tauine o ngā rerekētanga i waenganui i te momo.
I te tuhituhi a ia i tana pukapuka nui"" ki te whakaatu i tana rangahau i te wā i whakahaere takitahitia te kaupapa māori, a, ka whakamāramatia e ia i roto i tētahi pukapuka kōrero i tukua e ia ki Darwin ki te whakamua ki a Charles Lyell."
I te putanga tuatoru o te tau 1861 i whakaae a Darwin ko etahi atu—penei i a William Charles Wells i te tau 1813, me Patrick Matthew i te tau 1831—he rite ngā whakaaro i whakatakotohia, engari kaore i whakawhanakehia, kāore anō i whakaatu i roto i ngā pukapuka rongonui.
I roto i tētahi reta ki a Charles Lyell i ia September 1860, i whakaritea e Darwin te whakamahinga o te kupu "Tīpakonga Maori, e hiahia ana ki te kupu ""Tiaki Māori"."
Engari, i noho tautohe tonu te whiriwhiringa māori hei tikanga, i tētahi wā nā te mea i kitea he ngoikore rawa ki te whakamārama i te awhe o ngā āhuatanga rauropi ora e mātakina ana, ā, nā te mea, ko ngā kaitautoko i ngā kunenga e rerekē ana i wairuatia i tōna tūturu", me te āhua kāore e roa, he urupare i whakaahuatia hei mea tino hāngai ki te whakaaetanga a te ariā."
I te whakaurunga o te rau tau 20 o ngā kunenga ki ngā ture o te kainga tupu o Mendel, ko te kōrero ā tōna wā, ko te tikanga ka whakaae mai ngā kaipūtaiao ki te tīpakonga tūturu.
I whakamōhiotia e J.B. S. Haldane te ariā o te utu"" o te tīpakonga māori."
Heoi anō, ko te tīpakonga tūturu he matapo"" i roto i te āhuatanga ka taea e ngā huringa o te tohuāhua te whai hua, ahakoa he huaora te āhuatanga, ahakoa rānei, kāore rānei te āhuatanga."
Mēnā ko ngā āhuatanga e hoatu ana i ēnei tangata he hua uri hoki, arā, i puta mai i te matua ki te uri, kātahi ka whakaputa anō i ngā uri rerekē, arā, he iti ake te ōrite o ngā rāpeti tere, o te kapoke māia rānei i tērā whakatupuranga a muri ake.
Mā tēnei e hoatu te āhua o te whāinga, engari i roto i te tīpakonga māori, kāore he kōwhiringa mārire.
Na tēnei i nui ake te wā e wātea ana ki te whakaora i nga uri kano, a, i roto i te rima tekau tau i mau ai te purehurehu pōuri tuatahi, tata tonu ki te pouri katoa o Ngā Pātiria.
Mēnā e ora ana tētahi rauropi ki te taha o ētahi atu o tōna momo, engari e rua ngā uri e ora ana ki te pakeketanga, ka noho noa atu tōna tūturu i te iwi whānui pakeke o te whakatupuranga o muri.
Me whakarite te rerekētanga i waenganui i te ariā o "te noho ora o te hunga tino tika, me te ""whakapai ake i te kaha". """
I karangatia e Hēdane tēnei tukanga ko kakapinga", ko ngā mea nui ake rānei i roto i te koiora, e kiia ana tēnei ko ""whakatika"."
Ko te tūponotanga o tētahi irakētanga whai hua ki ētahi mema o te iwi whānui, kei te āhua tonu o te tau katoa o ngā tāruaruatanga o taua rerekētanga.
I roto i tēnei whakamātautau, kei te āhua o te whakapai"te whakapai ki te kaha", i runga anō i te maha o ngā tāruaruatanga o tētahi taupēnga hōu kia puta mai te taupēnga hōu e āhei ana ki te tipu ake i te rohe whakamōhio rongoā ki runga ake nei."
Ko te whakamātautau whanaketanga tawhito a Richard Lenski E. coli mo te wa roa he tauira o te urutaunga i roto i te taiao whakataetae, ( "te whakapiki i te oranga tinana" "i te wa" "oranga o te mea tino" ")."
Ka mahi hoki te tīpakonga hiahia wehewehe i ngā wā tauwhiro ina tino pai rawa te aratau o nāianei, engari ka huri i te āhuatanga ki ētahi ahunga neke atu i te kotahi.
E rua noa iho ngā momo kaimātai koiora e mōhio ana ki a rātou: ko te tīpakonga ā-kaimārire (ka noho ora rānei), e mahi ana kia nui ake te tūponotanga ora o te rauropi, me te tīpakonga mānawa (te whakawhanaketanga rānei, te whakaputa uri rānei), e mahi ai hei whakanui ake i te auau o te whakaputaruatanga, e ai ki te ora.
I roto i te tīpakonga whanaunga me te papā ā-whanaunga, ka homai e te tīpakonga taumata-ira he whakamārama nui ake mō te tukanga whāiti.
Ko te whiringa rauropi he tīpakonga māori mā ngā tikanga atu i te tīpakonga tōkai, pērā i te tīpakonga whanaunga, te whakataetae, me te rauiti.
Heoi anō, i ētahi momo, ko te kōwhiringa hoahoa ko te nuinga mā te tāne e whakatau, pērā ki ētahi ika o te whānau Syngnathidae.
Mai i te wā o te tau kotahi mano 1928, ka whakamahia nga rongoā paturopi hai whawhai i nga mate huakita.
Ko te rerekētanga iranga ko te hua o ngā irakētanga, ngā whakahoki iranga me ngā whakarerekētanga i roto i te karyotype (te tau, te hanga, te rahi me te whakaritenga ā-roto o ngā pūira).
Heoi anō, he maha ngā irakētanga i roto i ngā DNA waehere kore he pānga whakakore.
He nui ngā pānga o ēnei huringa ki te tohuāhuahua o te tangata nā te mea kei te whakarite i te taumahi o ērā atu tīni maha.
Ki te nui ake te kaha o ngā irakētanga pērā, ka manakohia ēnei tohuāhuahua me te āhuatanga pukapuka i roto i te iwi whānui.
Heoi anō, he inenganui ki te ariā o tētahi momo ka tīpakohia te ōrau, e aukati ana i te kunenga o te whakawhanaketanga, he raruraru i mōhiotia e Darwin.
E whakatauria ana te tohuāhua e te momo iranga o te rauropi (momoira) me te taiao e ora ai te moroiti.
Ko te tauira ko te momo toto ABO ārai whānako o te tangata, e toru nga ira e whakahaere ana i te tohuāhua.
Ka taea te haere tonu tēnei tukanga tae noa ki te whakaūtanga o te ira katoa, ā, ka tiria e te iwi whānui te tohuāhua tika.
Ko te tīpakonga mauri he penapena i ngā āhuahira iranga taumahinga, pēnei i te tīpae waehere-pūparetū, ngā raupapa ture rānei, mā te pēhi tīpako ki ngā pēhitanga muku.
Kāore ētahi momo tīpakonga whakatautika i te hua ki te whakamau, engari me pupuri tētahi ira ārai i te wā whakawaenga o te iwi whānui.
Ka puta hoki te tautiakitanga o ngā momo āhuatanga ā-rua mā te whakararuraru, i te whakaputatanga rānei i te tīpakonga, e manako ana i ngā momoira e mahue ana i te wawaenga ki tētahi ahunga (arā, ko te anga atu o te mana whakahaere-tuatahi), ā, ka puta mai pea tētahi tuaritanga āhuatanga.
Heoi anō, i muri i tētahi takiwā kāore he irakētanga hōu, ka whakakoretia te rerekētanga iranga i ēnei pae nā te tere o te ira.
Ko te putanga tūturu o ngā tukanga e rua kei te āhua tonu o te mokatere e puta ai ngā irakētanga hōu me te kaha o te tīpakonga tūturu, he taumahi tērā e manawatea ana te irakatitanga.
Ka pā kōaro te whakararutanga pērā i waenganui i ngā mea e rua ki te tawhiti i waenganui i a rāua.
Ko te hua o tētahi tīpoka tīpako kaha e hua ana ki tētahi rohe o te huinga ira kai reira te haplotype i tīpakohia tika (te ārai me ōna hoa noho tata) ko te āhua anake o ngā mea e tīari ana i te iwi whānui.
Ko te tīpakonga papamuri te hangai o tētahi tahi tīpako.
I roto i ngā kupu a te kaipōtutu, a Daniel Dennett, "te ariā mōrearea a Darwin" o te kunenga e te tīpakonga tūturu he waikawa ahuwhānui,"" e kore e taea te rāhuitia ki tētahi oko, ipu rānei, ina tata tonu te mārire, ka mahi i tōna ara ki ngā wāhi whānui ake."
Ko ēnei āhuatanga ko: te tūturu, te rerekētanga o te momo, me te whakataetae mō ngā rauemi whāiti.
Ko Herbert Spencer me nga eugenics e tautoko ana i te whakamaori a Francis Galton mo te kowhiringa maori, me te ahu whakamua, me te ahu whakamua o te maatauranga me te ao tangata, kaati hei whakatika mo te koroni, mo te iwi Maori, mo te Darwinism hapori.
"Ko te ariā ā iwi ko te take o to tātau āhua kua nui kē te mahi i tēnei aronga."""
Ko te tauira tino mōhiotanga o te hinengaro, i tino hōhonu i te mahi tuatahi a Noam Chomsky a muri ake nei nā Wheua Māwhero, ko te whakapae nā te hinengaro tangata i whakaritea kia whiwhi ki ngā ture wetereo o te reo maori.
I kite a ia he āhuatanga tuku iho nga āhuatanga o ngā rauropi (pea) i runga i te waituhi "nga wae o te kainga tupu."
Ka akona te hanganga ira me te taumahi, te rerekētanga me te tuari i roto i te horopaki o te pūtau, te rauropi (hei whakarite i te mana), i roto hoki i te horopaki o te iwi whānui.
Ko ngā tukanga iranga e mahi tahi ana me te taiao me ngā wheako o te rauropi hei whakaawe i te whanaketanga me te whanonga, e kīia ana ko te ao tūturu me te whāngai.
Ko te pūtaiao o ngā ira o nāianei, e rapu ana kia mārama ki tēnei tukanga, i tīmata ki te mahi a te rangi hurinoa o Atene Mendel i te waenganui o te rau tau 19.
He rite tonu tana ture tuarua ki tā Mendel i whakaputaina.
I te wā o te rau tau e 19 ana tētahi ariā e pānuitia ana e Charles Darwin 1859 On the Origin of Species, i te whakaranu taonga tuku iho: ko te ariā ka tuku te tangata i tētahi āhuatanga māeneene i o rātau mātua.
I roto i tana pepaVersuche über Pflanzenhy patere"" (""Whakamātautau i te Plant Hybridization"), i whakaaturia i te tau1865 ki te Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) i Brünn, Ka whakatakina e Mendel ngā tauira tuku iho o ētahi āhuatanga o tētahi o ngā āhuatanga o te pea, ā, ka whakamāramatia ā-pāngarau."
Nā William Bateson, he kaitautoko i te mahi a Mendel, i whakaputaina te kupu iranga i te tau kotahi mano 1905 (te iranga whakaaro, i takea mai i te kīanga o te kupu Kariki—γένεσις, taketake", waitohu ana i te kupu tūturu, ā, i whakamahia tuatahitia i roto i te āhuatanga koiora i te tau 1860)."
I roto i ngā tau e 11 e whai ake nei, i kitea e rua ngā arotau X me ngā pūtārua X me ngā tāne anake o te wāhine.
I tautuhia e Hemi Watson rāua ko Francis Crick te hanganga o te DNA i te tau kotahi mano e 1953, mā te whakamahi i te mahi mōhiohio mōataata X-ray o Rarakina Toruhimana me MauriceUne e tohu ana he hanga rongoā a DNA (i.e., he āhua pēnei i te corkscrew).
Na te hanganga hoki i huatau he aratuka ngāwari mō te tāruatanga: mēnā kua wehea nga aho, ka taea te hanga hou anō i ngā aho hoa mō ia mea, i runga anō i te raupapa o te aho tawhito.
I ngā tau e whai ake nei, ka whakamātau nga kaipūtaiao ki te mōhio he pēhea te whakahaere a PĪTAU i te tukanga o te whakaputa pūmua.
Na te mōhiotanga rāpoi kōrero hōu o te kainga tupu i puta mai ai te rangahau.
Ko tetahi whanaketanga nui ko te whakarurutanga mekameka DNA i te tau 1977 na Frederick Sanger.
I roto i ana whakamātautau e ako ana i te āhuatanga mo te tae putiputi, ka kitea e Mendel he papura, he mā rānei ngā putiputi o ia tipu pī — engari kaua rawa e tauwaenga i waenganui i ngā tae e rua.
He tokomaha nga momo, tae atu ki te tangata, kai a ia tēnei tauira o te kainga tupu.
Ina heterehe ngā rauropi ki tētahi ira, i te nuinga o te wā e kiia ana te ira kotahi he mea kaha ki ōna painga ki te tohuāhua o te rauropi, i te mea e kiia ana tētahi atu ārai hei recessive hei reke, ā, kāore anō kia kitea.
I te nuinga o te wā ka whakamahia tētahi tohu "+" hei tohu i te ira pūnoa, ira-kore mō tētahi ira.
Ko tētahi o ngā hoahoa noa e whakamahia ana hei matapae i te hua o te tāuri whakawhiti, ko te tapawhā Punnett.
Kaore ētahi tīra e whakaae takitahi, e whakaatu ana i te hononga iranga, he kaupapa e kōrerorerotia ā muri ake nei i tēnei tuhipānui.)
Heoi anō, ka whakahaeretia e tētahi atu ira mēnā he tae ngā putiputi, he mā rānei.
He maha ngā āhuatanga ehara i te āhuahira kōpae (hei tauira, he putiputi papura, mā rānei) engari he āhuahira motukore kē (hei tauira, te teiteitanga o te tangata me te tae kiri).
Ko te waeine e āwhina ai te tīma o te āhuatanga matatini ki tētahi āhuatanga matatini, ko te pūmautanga.
Ko te pītauira he mekameka karihi, e whā nga momo: adenine (A), hairini (C), nati (G), me ngā thymine (T).
Kāore e taea e ngā huaketo te whakaputa anō me te kore kaihautū, ā, ka kore e rāweketia e ngā tukanga iranga maha, nā reira, kaua e whakaarotia ngā rauropi ora.
Ko tēnei hanganga DNA te take ōkiko mō te kainga tupu: ko te tāruaruatanga pītauira he tārua i ngā mōhiohio iranga mā te wehe i ngā aho me te whakamahi i ia aho hei tātauira mō te wetereo o tētahi kaho hoa hōu.
He tino roa rawa ēnei aho pītauira; He tauira, ko te taeoho tangata tino nui rawa atu, e tata ana ki te 247 miriona ngā takirua pūtake e roa ana.
I te nuinga o te wā ka kitea te DNA i roto i te karihi pūtau, engari i āwhina a Rutu Hager i te kitenga o te kēnā tukutahi i kitea i waho o te karihi.
Ahakoa kotahi anake ngā tārua o ia kararehe, ko te nuinga o ngā kararehe me te nui o ngā tipu he ngāteri, e rua o ia urupa, ā, e rua ngā tārua o ia ira.
I te tangata me ērā atu kararehe maha, kei roto i te Y ko te ira e whakaoho ana i te whanaketanga o nga āhuatanga tāne tino ātaahua.
Ko tēnei tukanga, e kīa nei ko te pūiraira, ko te momo whakaputa ngāwari rawa, ā, ko te pūtake mo te whakaputa ā-tōkai-kore.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka whakamahia e ngā rauropi ā-ira ā-ira hei whakaputa i ngā uri e pupuri ana i ngā rauemi iranga i tuku iho i ngā mātua rerekē e rua.
Ka taea e ētahi huakita te whakatinana, te whakawhiti i tētahi wāhanga iti o te DNA ki tētahi atu kararehe.
Mā tēnei ka puta nga pahekotanga hōu o te tīra ki te uri o te tokorua.
I te wā o te wā o te wā o te whāwhā, ka whakatoroa te pītauira i te whakawhitinga o te pītauira, ma te tika o te kōauau i waenganui i nga kararehe pūira.
Ko te whakaaturanga cytological tuatahi o te whakawhiti i mahia e Harriet Creighton me Barbara McClintock i te 1931.
Mō tētahi tawhiti noa iho, he nui rawa te tūponotanga o te whanake whāwhā kia pai ai te whakawhanaunga o te tīra.
Ko te raupapa whāiti o ngā waikawa amino e hua ana ki tētahi hanga ahu-toru motuhake mō taua pūmua, ā, e pā ana ngā hanga ahu-toru pūmua ki a rātou mahi.
He hihiri te hanga pūmua; I a ia e whakangāwari ana i te hopukanga, i te kawenga me te tuku i ngā rāpoi ngoikore hāora i roto i te toto mamatea.
Hei tauira, he heremaia pūtau toronaihi tētahi mate iranga tangata e puta mai ana i tētahi rerekētanga pūtake kotahi i roto i te rohe waeherenga mō te wāhanga β-globin o te hemoglobin, nāna tētahi huringa waikawa amino kotahi e huri ai i ngā āhuatanga ōkiko o te hemoglobin.
Ko ētahi raupapa DNA ka tuhia ki roto i te RNA engari kaore i te whakamaoritia ki ngā hua pūmua—ka kiia ēnei ngota RNA he RNA kore-waehere.
He tauira whakamere ko te tae koti o te poti Siamese.
Engari he tairongo ēnei pūmua whakaputa makawe pōuri ki te pāmahana (i.e. he irakētanga i puta ai te tairongotanga pāmahana) me te tūturu i roto i ngā taiao pāmahana tiketike ake, ka kore ai e whakaputa i ngā pākakā makawe pōuri i ngā wāhi e nui ake ai te pāmahana tinana o te poti.
I muri iho i te hinganga o te Emepaea Rо̄mana ki te Uru, ka heke te mōhiotanga o ngā āhuatanga Kariki o te ao ki Uropi ki te Uru i ngā rau tau tōmua (400 ki te 1000 CE) o ngā Tau Waenga, engari i tiakina i te hunga Mahometa i te wā o ngā Tau Kо̄ura o Islam.
Ko te tikanga kua wehea te pūtaiao o nāianei ki ngā peka nunui e toru, arā ko ngā pūtaiao maori (hei tauira, ko te koiora, te matuhi, me te ahupūngao), ko tērā e ako ana i te āhuatanga whānui rawa; nga tikanga o te iwi me ngā pūtaiao tikanga (hei tauira, ararau, pāngarau, me te pūtaiao rorohiko ariā), e mahi ana ki ngā tohu e whakahaeretia ana e ngā ture.
Ko te mōhiotanga hou i te pūtaiao kai te whakakaha i te rangahau a nga kaupapa pūtaiao e whakahauhautia ana e te whakaaro ki te ao me te hiahia ki te whakatika i ngā raruraru.
Ko te momo mātauranga tērā pea ka taea e te tangata te whakawhiti kōrero me te tiritiri.
Heoi anō, kāore he āhuatanga mōhio tūturu i waenganui i te mātauranga o aua mea, e pono ana i ia iwi, me ētahi atu momo mōhiotanga ā-iwi, pēnei i ngā pūrongo me ngā pūnaha ture.
I mahia e rātou he maramataka whai mana, tekau mā rua ngā marama, e toru tekau ngā rā, e rima hoki ngā rā i te mutunga o te tau.
Nā tēnei take i kiia ai ko ēnei tāngata nga tohutohu tuatahi i runga i te uauatanga, ko te iwi tuatahi hoki e mārama ana te wehe i te tūāhua"" me te ""hui.""
He rerekē, e ngana ana ki te whakamahi i te mōhiotanga o te āhua ki te pakoire i te āhua o te āhua (hangarau, te hangarau rānei, i te Greek technē) i kitea e ngā kaipūtaiao māori hei huarahi tika ake mō ngā kaimahi o te taunaha pāpori hahaka iho.
Na te toru Greek o nga tohunga āhuatanga o te ākonga Leucippus me tana ākonga ko Democritus i whakaarahia te kaupapa ngota.
Ko te aratuka Socratic i whakaahuatia e ngā kōrero a Plato, he tikanga whakaahua ā-whakaaro o te whakakore hipanga: ka kitea te tinihanga pai ake mā te tautuhi me te whakakore i te hunga e ahu ana ki te whakahē.
Socrates I whakahētia e ia te momo akoranga pakeke o te ahupūngao, he tino mārire rawa, a, kāore i te whakahē i a ia anō.
I muri iho ka hangaia e Aristotle tētahi hōtaka āhuatanga pūnaha o te whakaaro kaupapa whakaaro arawhitiwhiti: Motion me te huringa kua whakaahuatia hei tūturu i ngā mōrea kē i roto i ngā mea, e ai ki ēhea momo mea.
Na te toko Socratics hoki i whakahau kia whakamahia te whakaaro hei whakaaro mo te whakaaro āhua o te āhuatanga pai rawa mo te ora mo te tangata (he akoranga Aristotle i wehea hei tikanga matatika me te whakaaro tōrangapū).
I ākiritia whānuitia te tauira a Aristarchus nā te mea i whakapono he takahi i nga ture o te ahupūngao.
Ko John Philoponus, he tohunga o Byzantine i nga tau 500, i patai te whakaakoranga ahupūngao a Aristotle, me te kite i ona hapa.
E whā nga take a Aristotle i tohu ai kia whā nga ara e whakautua ai te pātai he aha"" kia whakamāramatia ai ngā mea i te mātauranga."
Heoi anō, ka ngaro ngā kupu taketake o Aristotle i Western Europe, ā, kotahi anake ngā kupu a Plato i mōhiotia, te Timaeus, ko te Platonic anake te kōrero, ā, ko tētahi o ngā torutoru o ngā mahi taketake o te whakaaro māori, e wātea ana ki ngā kaipānui Latin i te Middle Ages o mua.
He maha ngā whakawhitinga Syriac i mahia e ngā rōpū pērā ki nga Nestorians me nga Monophysites.
p. 465: i te wā anake i te whakaawetanga a ibn al-Haytam me ētahi atu i runga i te whakaahuatanga o ngā tuhinga ā-tinana o muri tata nei, ka taea e Schramm te whakapono a Schramm ko ibn al-Haytam te kaiwhakaū tūturu o te mātauranga o nāianei kia arotakengia.""
E whakaarotia ana ko te rangatiratanga a Avicenna tētahi o ngā pānuitanga tino hira i roto i te rongoā, ā, i tino āwhina rāua ki te mahi i te rongoā whakamātautau, mā te whakamahi i ngā whakamātautau rongoā, me ngā whakamātautau ki te whakahoki i a rātau kerēme.
I tua atu i tērā, ka tīmata te whakamāoritanga o ngā kuputuhi Kariki matau mai i te Arabic me te Greek ki Latin, e nui ake ana te taumata matapakinga pūtaiao i roto i te Western Europe.
Manuscript nga kape o te Pukapuka Matapihi a Alhazen i hora haere puta noa i Europe i mua o te 1240, e mohiotia ana na te whakauru ki roto i a Vitello's Perspectiva.
Nā te maha o ngā tuhinga tawhito i puta ai te Renaissance o te rautau 12 me te puāwai o te whakahiatotanga o te Katorika me te Aristotelianism e kiia nei ko Scholasticism i te uru o Uropi, i noho hei pokapū matawhenua hou mo te pūtaiao.
He tauira tirohanga na muri mai ko te werawera i whakamahia e nga kaitoi o te Renaissance.
I takea mai i runga i te kaupapa o te aorangi he roa ake nga waahi orbit o nga aorangi i te mea kei tawhiti atu a ratau aorere mai i te pokapū nekehanga, i kite ia kaore i pai ki te tauira a Ptolemy.
I kitea e ia ko nga rama katoa mai i te waahi kotahi o te whakaaturanga i whakaahuahia i tetahi waahi i muri o te ao karaihe.
Kaore a Kōtaha i whakakāhore i te metaphysics o Aristotelian, ā, i whakaahua i tana mahi hei rapunga mo te Harmony o te Spheres.
I korerohia e Galileo nga tohenga mai i te Pope ka whakatakoto ki te reo o te kuware i roto i te mahi "Dialogue About the Two Chief World Systems", i tino whakaekehia e Urban VIII. "
Descartes i whakapakari i te whakaaro takitahi, ka tautohetohe kia kaua te pāngarau me whakamahi kia āhei ai te mahi pāngarau kia āta tirohia ai te āhua.
I tīmata tēnei pūtaiao hou ki te kite i a ia anō e whakamārama ana i ngā ture o te ao"."
I runga i te āhua o Francis Bacon, i whakaaro a Leibniz he rerekē ngā momo mea katoa e mahi ana i runga i ngā ture ahuwhānui ōrite, ā, kāore he take tika, he take whakamutunga motuhake rānei mō ia momo mea.
I roto i nga kupu a Bacon, "Ko te whainga pono me te tika o te aoiao ko te whakawhiwhinga o te oranga o te tangata ki nga mahi hou me nga taonga", a ka pehia e ia nga kaiputaiao ki te whai i nga whakaaro mohio, whakaaro wairua ranei, i whakaponohia e ia he iti noa te koa o te tangata ki tua atu . "te kohu o te whakaaro mohio, rangatira, pai ranei""."
Ko tētahi atu whanaketanga hira ko te manakohanga o te pūtaiao i waenganui i te tokomaha kaitiro.
Enlightenment nga maataapoto i kowhiri i te hitori poto o mua o mua - ko Galileo, Boyle, me Newton te kaupapa matua - hei kaiarahi me nga kaitautoko mo te whakamahi i te kaupapa motuhake o te taiao me nga ture maori ki nga waahi a-tinana me nga hapori katoa o te waa.
Ko "Hume me etahi atu kaiwhakaaro Scottish Enlightenment i whakawhanake i te" "science of man" ", i whakaputaina i roto i nga mahi a nga kaituhi tae atu ki a James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar me William Robertson. me nga ahurea o nehe me te mohio nui ki nga mana whakatau o tenei ao. "
Na John Herschel raua ko William Whewell i whakaraupapa nga tikanga: ko te whakamutunga i hangaia te kupu putaiao.
I wehea e Gregor Mendel tana pepa, "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" (Whakamatau mo te Whakawhanake Tipu""), i te tau 1865, e whakaatu ana i nga maataapono o te taonga tuku iho koiora, hei turanga mo nga ira hou.
Ko nga ahuatanga e ahei ai te whakakore i te ngota i kitea i roto i nga tekau tau kua hipa o te rautau 19: ko te kitenga o nga hihi X he mea whakaohooho i te reo irirangi.
Anō hoki, ko te whānuitanga o te whakamahi i ngā whakahaere hangarau i whakaritea e nga pakanga o tēnei rau tau, ka hurihuri i roto i te waka rererangi( ngā waka me ngā rererangi), te whakawhanaketanga o ngā ICBMs, i te tauomaoma ātea, i te whakataetae ringa karihi.
Na te kitenga o te mahinga o te pūhihi o te ngahauiti haurua kōmaru i te 1964, i whakakāhoretia ai te Steady State o nga ariā o te ao nui e āwhina ana ki te ariā Big Bang a Georges Lemaître.
Ko te whakamahi whānui i ngā ara iahiko tauhōu i te hauwhā whakamutunga o te rau tauwhitinga 20 i honoa ki ngā aorangi whakawhitiwhiti, i puta ai ki tētahi hurihanga i roto i ngā hangarau mōhiohio me te pikinga ake o te ipurangi huri noa me te rorohiko pūkoro, tae atu ki ngā kaitiaki rorohiko.
Ko nga mātauranga māori, pūtaiao pāpori rānei, he mātauranga tūturu, he mea take hoki to rātau mātauranga i runga anō i ngā kitenga piripiri, ā, ka taea te whakamātautau mō tōna manaakitanga e ētahi atu kaiwhaiwhai e mahi ana i raro i aua āhuatanga kotahi.
Hei tauira, ka taea te whakaiti i te pūtaiao ā-tinana ki roto i te ahupūngao, te matu, te mātauranga tātai, me te pūtaiao o te ao.
A, he tirohanga taumauri, he āhuatanga, me ngā whakaaro tūturu, i te nuinga o te whakarapa, e noho tika ana i roto i te pūtaiao maori.
Kei roto ko ngā pāngarau, te ariā pūnaha, me te pūtaiao ā-ariā rorohiko.
Nō reira ko ngā pūtaiao tikanga he whakatinana tōmua, ā, nā tēnei, tērā te tautohe mēnā he pūtaiao tūturu tonu.
Kei roto i te pūkaha anō tētahi awhe o ngā āpure pūkaha motuhake o te pūkaha, ia tauwhāiti me te tauwhāiti ake i ngā wāhi pāngarau, pūtaiao, me ngā momo taupānga.
Ka urupare a ia: "E te Ariki, he aha te whakamahinga o te tamaiti hou?".
Ka whakamahia tēnei whakamāramatanga hōu hei whakamārama i ngā matapae whakawātea e whakamātauria ana e te whakamātautau, i te kitenga rānei.
Ka mahia tēnei mā te mātaki i ngā āhuatanga o te taiao, engari mā te whakamātautau hoki e ngana ana ki te whakataurite i ngā āhuatanga o te taiao i raro i ngā tikanga whakahaere e tika ana ki te ako (i roto i ngā mātakitaki, pēnei i te arorangi, te matawhenua rānei, ka taea e te tirohanga matapae te whakakapi i te wāhi o te mana whakahaere. whakamātau).
Mēnā i ora te whakawāwā whakaaro, ka whakaaetia pea ki roto i te anga o tētahi kaupapa pūtaiao, he tauira, tauira, anga whaiaro rānei hei whakaahua i te whanonga o ētahi āhuatanga tūturu.
I roto i tēnā uaua, ka whakatakotoria nga kaupapa whakaaro e ai ki te nuinga o nga kaupapa pūtaiao ōrite ki te tinihanga.
Ka taea tēnei mā te whakamātautau tūpato hoahoa, pūataata, me te hātepe arotakenga ā-hoa o ngā hua whakamātautau me ētahi whakamutunga.
Statistics, ko tētahi peka pāngarau, hei whakarāpopoto me te tātari raraunga, e taea ai e ngā pūtaiao te arotake i te whaikiko me te mātauranga o ngā hua whakamātautau.
Ka taea te taumira ki te ārai-tūturu, kāore te angitu o te pūtaiao e whakawhirinaki ana ki tōna tika mō ngā mea e kore e taea te tiaki, pēnei i ngā irahiko.
He rerekē nga kura whakaaro kai roto i te whakaaro o te pūtaiao.
Me pēnei nā te mea he mutunga kore te maha o ngā matapae ka meatia e ērā kaupapa, ko te tikanga kāore e taea te mōhiotia mai i ngā taunaki tūturu mā te whakamahi i te arorau whakawhiti anake.
He pūrata te whakapūhau a Critical ki te rau tau 20 ki te pūtaiao, i te tuatahi, i tautuhia tuatahitia e te kaipōnoho e Austrian-British o Karl Popper.
I marohitia e Popper te whakakapi i te manatokonga ki te whakawāteatanga hei tohu o ngā kaupapa pūtaiao, ā, ka whakakapia te kōhuhukitanga ki te whakangaunga hei aratuka taupoki.
Ko tētahi atu huarahi, pūoko, e whakamārama ana i te taputapu o ngā kaupapa akoranga hei taputapu mō te whakamārama me te matapae tītohunga.
E tūtata ana ki te taonga mahi tūturu, ki tērā e tika ana te whakairinga matua mo te angitu o te kaupapa pūtaiao, ahakoa he pono ngā kōrero e kōrero ana mō ngā mea aroturuki.
He pātai, whainga, me ngā whakamāoritanga anō o ia āhua whakaahua.
Arā, ko te kōwhiringa o tētahi whakaahua whakaahuatanga hou i takea mai i ngā kitenga, ahakoa i hangaia aua kitenga ki te papamuri o te whakaahuatanga tawhito.
Ko tōna take matua ko te rerekētanga i waenganui i ngā whakamāramatanga māori me ngā whakamārama maori, ā, ko te tikanga me rāhui te pūtaiao i te tikanga o te tikanga ki ngā whakamāramatanga māori.
Arā, kaore he ariā e tino mōhiotia ana e whakaae ana te pūtaiao ki te ariā o te hīpiripiri.
New kore nei e puta mai te mōhiotanga pūtaiao hou ki nga huringa nui i roto i to tātau mātau māramatanga.
Ko te mātauranga i te pūtaiao e whiwhi ana i tētahi tuhinga mōhiohio ā-nuinga mai i ngā whakamātautau rerekē e ētahi atu kaitaiao puta noa i ngā manga pūtaiao rerekē; He rite kē atu ki te piki haere i te pekenga.
E kii ana a Philosopher Barry Stroud, ahakoa ko te whakamaaramatanga pai mo te "matauranga" "e tautohetia ana, ko te ngakau ruarua me te manaaki i te tupono kei he tetahi he hototahi ki te tika."
Ko te pēnei rawa tēnei i ngā āpure pūtaiao nui ake o te pūtaiao (hei tauira, te hinengaro ā-tinana).
Mai i taua wā kua nui haere tonu te katoa o ngā takiwā hohe.
Ahakoa kei te 39 ngā reo o ngā tuhitaka, 91 ōrau o ngā tuhipānui taupū kua whakaputaina i te reo English.
Ko nga maheni Science penei i te New Scientist, Science & Vie, me te Scientific American te whakatutuki i nga hiahia o te tini o te hunga panui me te whakarato i tetahi whakarāpopototanga hangarau-kore o nga waahanga rangahau rongonui, tae atu ki nga kitenga me nga ahunga whakamua o etahi waahanga rangahau.
Tērā pea ka taka ki ēnei kāwai ētahi momo pānuitanga arumoni, e tīmata ana mai i ngā tāpapa ki te tinihanga.
He tokomaha nga kaipūtaiao e whai māngai ana i nga wāhanga maha o te umanga, pēnei i te mātauranga, te umanga, te kāwanatanga, me ngā whakahaere kore moni.
Hei tauira, i uru a Christine Ladd (1847–1930) ki tetahi hotaka Ph.D. "C. Ladd" "; Christine" "Kitty" "Ladd i oti nga whakaritenga i te tau 1882, engari i whakawhiwhia ia ki tana tohu i te 1926, whai muri i te umanga i toro atu te taurangi o te arorau (tirohia te tepu pono), te tirohanga tae, me te hinengaro. "
I te paunga o te rautau 20, ko te kaha kimi wahine me te whakakore i te aukatinga o te umanga i runga i te taangata he tino whakanui i te tokomaha o nga kairangataiao wahine, engari he nui nga rereketanga o te ira tangata kei roto i etahi waahi; i te timatanga o te rautau 21 neke atu i te haurua o nga tohunga koiora hou he wahine, ana 80% o nga PhDs i roto i te ahupūngao ka hoatu ki nga taane.
Ka tuwhera pea te mema ki te katoa, ka hiahia pea ki te pupuri i etahi tohu putaiao, ka taea ranei te honore i te pooti.
Ko ngā kaupapa here o te putaiao e meatia ana ki te rohe katoa o ngā take e pā ana ki ngā pūtaiao māori.
Ko ngā tauira hītori mātauranga ko te Great Wall o China, i oti i te roanga o te rua aataata mā te tautoko ā rohe maha, me te Grand Canal o te River Yangtze, he tino rerenga nui o te pūkaha waihihi i tīmataria e Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖 7 ngā hēneti.
Ko ēnei tukanga e whakahaeretia ana e te kāwanatanga, i nga kaporeihana, i nga tūranga rānei, e tohatoha moni pūmārō ana.
He teitei ake te wāhi pūtea kāwanatanga i ētahi mahi, ā, kai te tohutohu te rangahau i roto i te pūtaiao pāpori me nga tikanga tangata.
He maha ngā take e āhei ana ki te whakatauki i te pūtaiao pēnei i te pūkenga hāngai ā-hinengaro, ngā mōrearea ki ngā whakapono hāhi, ngā kaupapa whakaaro pānui, me te wehi ki ngā painga pakihi.
Ko te whakamātautau he hātepe i mahia hai tautoko, he whakakāhore rānei i te whakapae.
Ka taea e te Experiments te whakaara ake i nga tohu whakamatau hei awhina i te akonga kia anga atu tona ngakau me tana hiahia ki nga mea e akohia ana e ia, ina koa ka whakamahia mo tetahi wa roa.
Kei roto i te Experiments ko ngā mana, e hoahoatia ana hei whakamōkito i ngā pānga o ngā tāupe atu i te tāupe takitahi.
Researchers whakamahia hoki te whakamātautau ki te whakamātautau i ngā kaupapa tīariari, i nga tinihanga hou rānei hei tautoko, hei whakatūtei rānei.
Mēnā ka āta whakahaeretia tētahi whakamātautau, ko te tikanga kia tautokona, ka wete rānei i te whakaponotanga.
I roto i te rongoā me te mātauranga pāpori, he rerekē te pānga o te rangahau whakamātautau puta noa i nga whakatakotoranga.
Ko te tikanga kāore he tukuruatanga o te whakamātautau kotahi, engari ka rōpūtia ngā akoranga motuhake mā te arotake ā-pūnaha me te tātari-meta.
I pēnei pea ka tae mai tātau ki te pono e whanga ana i te ngakau, kia āta tae ki te mutunga e puta mai ai te pono; ahakoa mā te whakahē me te whakatūpato ka hopukia e tātau te pono e whakawātea ana i te whakahēnga me te whakatau i ngā take rangirua.
I roto i tēnei tikanga whakaaro nui, me kaua e wareware taua tangata ki tōna āhuatanga ki ngā whakaaro —mā te whakaaro"" me te ""whakahāwea"—a, ko te tikanga kia tino nui te nui o tana hanga i te tinihanga."
I pīrangi a Bacon i tētahi tikanga e whakawhirinaki ana ki ngā kitenga tukurua, ki ngā whakamātautau rānei.
Hei tauira, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) te wā ine tika me te whakamātautau kia tika ai ngā inenga me ngā whakamutunga mo te tere o te tinana hinga.
I roto i ētahi tauwhiro (hei tauira, mātau hinengaro, pūtaiao tōrangapū rānei), he tikanga o te 'whakamātautau tūturu' he tikanga rangahau pāpori kei reira e rua ngā momo tāupe.
He tauira pai te whakamātau pūroi.
Ka taea te wawaenga i ngā hua mai i ngā tauira tārua, mēnā rānei he maiorooro tētahi o ngā tārua ki ngā hua mai i ētahi atu tauira, ka taea te whiu he hua nā tētahi hapa whakamātautau (kua hē pea te aweretia o te hātepe whakamātautau mō taua tauira).
E mōhiotia ana tētahi mana tōraro he hua tōraro.
I te nuinga o te wā ka kitea te uara o te mana tōraro hei uara "papamuri" hei tango mai i ngā hua tauira whakamātautau.
Tērā pea ka hoatu ki ngā ākonga he tauira kūtere kāore i te mōhiotia (ki te ākonga) te nui o te pūmua.
Ka taea e ngā ākonga te hanga i ētahi tauira mana tōrunga e pupuri ana i ngā waimeha maha o te paerewa pūmua.
Ko te whakaaturanga he whakaaturanga ā-kanihi e taea ai e te ine āhuatanga o te pūmua i ngā tauira mā te kite i tētahi matatini tae i hangaia e te whakawhitinga o ngā rāpoi pūmua me ngā rāpoi ngota o tētahi tae tāpiri.
Mō tēnei take, ka tīmata te whakamātau mā te waihanga i ngā rōpū tauira e rua, neke atu rānei, he ōrite te ōrite, ko te tikanga kia ōrite ngā inenga o ngā āhuatanga i waenga i ngā rōpū, ā, kia ōrite te urupare a ngā rōpū ki te hoatu i taua rongoā ōrite.
Ka oti ngā rōpū taurite te hanga, ka ngana te kaiwhakamatau ki te whakamahi ōrite hāunga te tāupe kotahi e hiahia ana ia ki te wehe atu.
Mā tēnei e mōhio ai ko ngā pānga ki runga i te kaihoko nā te manaakitanga, a, ehara i te urupare ki te mōhiotanga kai te rarurarutia a ia.
E huatau ana ēnei tinihanga i ngā take hei whakamārama i tētahi tītohunga, te matapae rānei i ngā hua o tētahi mahi.
Ko te whakaaro kore, kāore he whakamārama, he mana tohu rānei o te tītohunga nā te whakaaro e tūtakitia ana.
Ki te waeine ka taea, ka ngana rātou ki te kohikohi raraunga mō te pūnaha kia taea ai te whakatau i ngā koha mai i ngā tāupe katoa, ā, kia noho taimau tonu ngā pānga o te tāupetanga i ētahi tāupe kia taea ai te kite i ngā pānga o ētahi atu tāupe.
Heoi anō, i te nuinga o te wā, he pānga kei waenganui i ēnei tāupe, e whakaiti ana i te taimautanga o ngā whakamātautau tūturu e pā ana ki te mea ka taea te whakaoti ina mahia he whakamātau mana.
Hei tauira, i roto i te mātakitaki kōrero, he mārama noa iho, ki te whakamātau i te hipanga "Ko ngā whetū ka tiango i ngā kapua hauwai, hei tīmata mā te kapua nui o te hauwai, kātahi ka mahia te whakamātautau e tatari ana mo ētahi mano miriona tau kia waihangatia ai he whetū."
Mō tēnei take, ka kitea i ētahi wā ko ngā whakamātautau āpure he nui ake te mana o waho i ngā whakamātautau taiwhanga.
I ēnei āhuatanga, he uara ngā akoranga kitenga nā te mea e huatau ana rātou ki ngā tinihanga ka taea te whakamātau ki ngā whakamātau matapōkere, mā te kohikohi raraunga hou rānei.
Hei āpitihanga, ko ngā akoranga kitenga (hei tauira, i roto i ngā pūnaha koiora, pāpori rānei) he uaua te ine, te mana rānei.
Mēnā kāore he tauira tauanga e whakaata ana i tētahi whakatupurangi whāinga, ka whakawhiriwhiri te tātaritanga tauanga ki tētahi tauira kaupapa.
Hei tauira, ko ngā akoranga tahumaero o te pukupuku kopirua e whakaatu tonu ana i ngā pānga whai hua ki te whakapaunga whaihuakoko, ahakoa kāore he painga o te whakamātautau.
Mō ētahi whakamātautau matapōkere, ka tūmanakohia ētahi rerekētanga mai i te toharite, engari mā te whakatupurangi e whakarite ana kei ngā rōpū whakamātautau ngā uara e kati ana, nā te mea kei te tepe pūtahi te ōritetanga o te taurite me te ōrite o Markov.
Hei karo i ngā āhuatanga e whakamātauria ai he iti iho te whaitake, ki ngā rata e whakahaere ana i ngā whakamātautau rongoā - me kii, mō te whakaaetanga ki te whakahaere kai, rongoā hoki mо̄ U.S.—me whakatau, me whakatupurangi i ngā tauwehe ka taea te tāutu.
I te nuinga o te wā he āhua ēngari kē (ahakoa he mana kore) te mahi whakamātau matapōkere ki ngā pānga o ngā mahinga paetata, mō ngā mahinga whakakino rānei, pēnei i ngā pānga o te tūtīpako i te hauoratanga tangata.
Kei te taiwhanga mātauranga ahupūngao pea tētahi whakatere korakora, mō te taiwhanga wūruku rānei, engari he taputapu mō te maka, mō te whakamātautau rānei i tō rātou kaha ki te taiwhanga konganuku, mō te whakamātau rānei i tōna kaha.
Ka whakamahi tonutia e te Scientists i ētahi atu āpure ētahi atu momo taiwhanga.
Ahakoa te whakaaro o te taiwhanga hei waahi tuturu mo nga tohunga, ko te kupu "taiwhanga" kei te kaha haere ki nga waahi awheawhe penei i nga Living Labs, Fab Labs, Hackerspaces ranei, e hui ai nga taangata ki te mahi i nga raru o te hapori. hanga tauira, mahi ngatahi te tohatoha rauemi ranei. "
I hangaia tenei whare taiwhanga i te wa i whakahaerehia e Pythagoras te whakamatautau ki nga oro o te oro me te wiri o te aho.
No te tau kotahi tekau mā iwa rau 16, i kitea noatia i te tau o te tau 2002.
Laboratory ko nga mate tūpāpaku pea ko nga paitini; māngai pāhekoheko; ngā rauhanga iraruke, pakū, iraruke rānei; mīhini neke; pāmahana pākaha rawa; ngā taiaho, ngā āpure kaha, ngaohiko teitei rānei.
Ko te Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) i te United States, e mohio ana ki nga ahuatanga ahurei o te waahi mahi taiwhanga, kua whakaritea he paerewa mo nga mahi ki nga matū morearea i roto i nga taiwhanga.
Ko te Occupational Safety me te Health Administration (OSHA) i te United States, e mohio ana ki nga ahuatanga motuhake o te waahi mahi a te whare taiwhanga, kua whakaritea he paerewa mo te whakawhiwhi mahi ki nga matū kino kei roto i nga whare taiwhanga.
Tērā anō, ka whakamahia hoki te arotakenga a te hunga tuatoru hei whakarato i tētahi tiro"i waho"" e tuku ana i tētahi tirohanga hōu ki ngā wāhi me ngā raruraru ka tangohia mō te māmā noa, i whakarapa rānei nā te tikanga."
He tino nui te whakangungu ki te mahi haumaru haere tonu o te whare o te taiwhanga.
Hei tauira, he hōtaka tā tētahi rōpū rangahau e whakahaere rangahau ana i runga anō i ā rātou kaupapa āwhina mō te rā kotahi o te wiki, engari mō ērā atu mea e mahi ana rātou i tētahi kaupapa rōpū.
Ko te Kaitapu he kaimahi nō te Laboratory, koia te rangatira e mōhio ana kei hea ngā mema o te whare taiwhanga i tēnei wā, i runga i te tohu motuhake i whakaputaina mai i te tohu o ia kaimahi.
Mā ngā akoranga whakairoiro, kotahi te rapunga, i waenga i ngā kaiāwhina, he rerekē te āheinga ā-wāhanga o ia karaehe (kaihautū, kaiwhakahaere...) kia rerekē te āheinga, e rerekē ana ki ia taiwhanga.
Mā te titiro ki ngā tauwhitinga maha i waenganui i ngā kaimahi, ka taea e tātau te whakatau to rātau tūnga pāpori i roto i te whakahaere.
Nā reira ko te take o tēnei aroākapa pāpori e whakaatu ana te Kaikōrero i ētahi momo waeine mōhiohio, e ai ki te kaimahi me ō rātou mana.
E pā ana hoki te aroākapa pāpori ki nga āhuatanga ki nga hangarau.
Hei tauira, ka tirohia e te kaiwhainga kaiwhiwhi te tohu whaitake, he āwhina hoki ki te kimi i ngā mema kaimahi i roto i te rā.
Ka whakararuraru ngā mema o te kaimahi ina huri i ngā tauira āheinga whai wāhitanga, tohutohu, manaaki, aroākapa ōpū, whai tikanga hoki, me ētahi atu mahi.
Nature, i roto i te āhuatanga whānui rawa, ko te ao tūturu, ōkiko, awatea rānei. "
Ahakoa he wahanga te tangata no te taiao, he maha nga wa e mohiohia ana ko nga mahi a te tangata he waahanga motuhake mai i etahi atu ahuatanga taiao.
Ko te ariā o te āhuatanga katoa, ko te ao ā-tinana, tētahi o ngā whakawhānuitanga maha o te whakaaro taketake; i tīmata ki ētahi taupānga uho o te kupu φύσις e ngā tohunga tauhou Socratic o mua (ahakoa he ahu hihiri tō tēnei kupu i taua wā, i te mea mō Heraclitus), ā, kua whiwhi tonu i te moni mai i tērā wā.
Heoi anō, he kitenga koiora o te āhua, e tata ana ki te tangata whakawhāiti, i puta houtia i taua wā kotahi, i muri iho i a Charles Darwin.
I ētahi wā, ko te tikanga o te taiao māori", te kōraha rānei—te kararehe mohoao, ngā toka, te ngahere, me te nuinga o ngā mea kāore anō kia tino hurihuritia e te whāwhānuitanga a te tangata, ahakoa rānei ka raweketia e te tangata."
Ko ōna āhuatanga weherua tino mōhio ko ōna rohe pāpaku nui e rua, e rua ngā rohe pāwhā iti, me tētahi whānui o te paetata o te paetata ki te rohe pūtata.
Ko te toenga, he whenua, he moutere, ko te nuinga o te whenua nohoia i te Northern Hemisphere.
Kei te hohe tonu te roto, me te apa mātotoru o te koroka kirihou me te uho kī rino e mahia ai tētahi papa hautō.
E Rock ngā wae i tuatahitia ma te ātete ki runga i te mata, i whakararuraru rānei ki roto i te toka pākaha.
Na te mahi māraurau me te puia i puta ai te āhuatanga mātātā.
I hangaia nga whenua, ka pakaru ka whakahoutanga i te wa i hurihia ai te mata o te Ao i roto i nga rau miriona tau, i etahi waa ka whakakotahi kia noho he supercontinent.
I te wā o te Neoproterozoic wā, ka taupokina te nuinga o te Earth i roto i ngā kōpaka, i nga rau hukapapa.
I puta mai i te kotahi mano tau e 66 miriona i mua, i te tūkinotanga o te kōkiri, tērā pea ka whakapuakina e te kōkiri nga māina kāore e taea te ānau me ētahi atu ngārara nunui, engari i tohungia ngā kararehe iti pēnei i ngā māngere.
Na te putanga ake o te oranga tangata, na te whanaketanga o te ahuwhenua me ētahi atu iwi i whakaae kia tere ake te pānga a te tangata ki a Papatūānuku, i tētahi atu āhua ora, e pā ana ki te āhua me te nui o ētahi atu rauropi, tae atu ki te āhua o te ao whānui.
Ko te apa angiangi o nga korohū e whakakū ana i te ā-papa o te Earth.
He nui te tūnga o te apa hāora ki te whakapau i te nuinga o te tino ngoikore (UV) e tae atu ana ki te mata.
Terrestrial ka tata te putanga o te huarere i te wāhi o raro rawa o te hauora, ā, ka mahi hei pūnaha āta whakararangi i te wera.
Waihoki, ki te kore te whakarawetanga o te pūngao wera i te taha o te au o te moana me te hauora, ka puta nga tahu o te kōpae, ā, he mātao kē atu nga rohe pitokore.
Kua huri te mauri mata ki te āraitanga ki te rerekētanga o te huarere, ā, ko ngā huringa ohorere e roa ana, he ruarua tau anake e whai pānga nui ana ki te mauri, ki ngā kararehe hoki e āhua ana ki tōna tupunga mō ā rātou kai.
E ai ki ngā pūkete hītori, e mōhiotia ana te Earth kua pā ki ngā huringa āhuarangi nui i mua, tae atu ki ngā tau hukapapa.
He maha nga rohe penei, mai i te rangi wera i te equator tae noa ki te rangi polar i te raki me te tonga.
He whirinoa tēnei mārakerake i te hurihanga a Earth i tōna āwhiotanga.
He hīpoki te wai i te 71% o te mata Earth's.
Ko nga rohe iti iho o nga moana ko nga moana, ko nga moana, ko nga whakaari, ko nga pāka me ētahi atu ingoa.
Kaore e mōhiotia mēnā e Titan's nga roto e whāngaia ana e nga awa, ahakoa i whakairotia te mata o Titan ki te tini o nga moenga awa.
He maha nga momo tinana wai i hangaia hei hāroto, tae atu ki ngā māra wai i hangaia hei whakapaipai āhuareka, he hāroto ika i hangaia mō te tāuri ika arumoni, me ngā hāroto kōmaru e hangaia ana hei penapena i te pūngao mahana.
He maha atu hoki nga ingoa e karangatia ai nga awa iti, tae noa ki te awa, ki te awa, ki te awa, ki te rimu, ki te awa; Kaore he ture ahuwhānui e whakamārama ana i te mea e taea te kiia ko te awa.
Ko te hanganga me te hanganga e whakatauria ana e nga take taiao maha e whakawhanaunga ana.
Ko te pūtahi ki te ariā pūnaha ko te ariā e tauwhiti ana ngā rauemi ora me ērā atu huanga i tō rātou taiao paetata.
Tērā anō pea ka kiia ko te ora te āhua o nga mea ora noa iho.
Engari, ehara i te mea he tino nui ēnei āhuatanga katoa o ēnei tikanga.
Mai i te tirohanga matawhenua whanui, ko te koiora te punaha kaiao o te ao e whakakotahi ana i nga mea ora katoa me o raatau hononga, tae atu ki o raatau taunekeneke ki nga waahanga o te lithosphere (toka), hydrosphere (wai), me te hau (rangi).
Neke atu i te 2 miriona ngā momo tipu me te oranga kararehe kua tāututia hei te wā, ā, ko ngā whakatau tata o te tau tūturu o te momo tīariari e ahu mai i te nuinga miriona ki tua atu i te 50 miriona.
Species kāore i taea te whakaurutau ki te hurihanga o te taiao me te whakataetae i ētahi atu āhua ora kua ngaro.
I te wā ka hangaia e ngā āhua taketake o te oranga tipu te tukanga o te whakaahuatanga ka taea te hauhake te pūngao o te rā hei waihanga i ngā here e āhei ai ki ngā momo oranga matatini kē atu.
Microorganisms he rauropi pūtau-kotahi i te nuinga o te wā, he iti iho i te kitenga o te karu tangata.
He tere, he whakanoa hoki to rātau whakaputa uri.
Mai i taua wā, kua mārama, he maha nga rōpū kāore i te hāngai i roto i te Plantae, ā, i tangohia te kōhuahua me ngā rōpū kapoke maha ki ngā kāwanatanga hou.
I waenganui i ngā āhuatanga maha o te whakarārangi o ngā tipu, na nga flora ā rohe, ā, i runga anō i te take o te akoranga, ka taea hoki te whakauru atu ko flora fossil, nga toenga o te oranga tipu mai i tētahi wā o mua.
Ko ētahi momo Flora māori" kua whakamōhiotia ētahi rau tau ki mua e ngā tāngata e heke mai ana i tētahi rohe, whenua rānei ki tētahi atu rohe, hei wāhi tau tōpu rānei o te māori, o flora māori rānei o te wāhi i whakamōhiotia ai rātau."
He maha nga āhuatanga o te kararehe hei kāwai e wehea ai rātou i ētahi atu mea ora.
E wehewehea ana hoki rātau i nga tipu, i te kapoke, i te kūkākā, i te korenga o nga pakitara pūtau.
Tērā anō hoki he ruma kūnatu ā roto.
I kitea e tētahi akoranga 2020 kua whakaputaina ki te Āhua, he whānui whāriki angiangi (ngā mea hanga a te tangata) e taumaha ake ana i ngā waeine ora katoa i runga i te whenua, me te parahitiki anake i tino nui rawa atu i te whānuitanga o te whenua katoa me ngā kararehe taimoana.
Ahakoa tēnei nekehanga, ahakoa tēnei, ka tūtata tonu te tūponotanga o te iwa tangata ki nga huringa o te taiao.
Kua āwhina te tangata ki te whakangaro i nga tipu me ngā kararehe maha, a, kotahi tonu te 1 miriona ngā momo i whakamatakutia i roto i te nuinga o nga tau.
Mā tēnei e whakakino te utu mākete o ngā rauemi maori, ā, i te wā kotahi ka ahu ki te pūtea haumaru i roto i a tātau rawa maori.
Kaore anō nga kāhuitanga kia āraia ēnei waho o te ohanga.
Ko ētahi mahi, pēnei i te mōhio me te hī ika, e whakamahia ana mo te kai me te wāteatanga, i te nuinga o nga wā, e nga tāngata rerekē.
Na te nui o te mahi toi, o te whakaahua, o nga whitiwhiti, o ētahi atu pukapuka e whakaatu ana i te kaha e whakahāngai ana i te āhua me te ataahua o te nuinga o te iwi.
He kaupapa hira te Nature me te mohoao i nga wā rerekētanga o te hītori o te ao.
Ahakoa nga mea whakamiharo o te taiao e whakanuihia ana i te Psalms me te Book of Job, ko nga whakaahua o te koraha i roto i nga mahi toi i kaha haere i nga tau 1800, ina koa ko nga mahi a te kaupapa Romana.
Nā tēnei i mōhiotia ai ko te pūtaiao tino taketake ko "ahupūngao—ko te ingoa e mōhiotia tonutia ana ko te ""akoranga o te ao"."
Ināianei kua whakapono ngā wae ari o te ao nui ki te tito i te 4.9 ōrau anake o te tāpiritanga katoa.
Te āhua nei ko te whanonga o te take me te pūngao puta noa i te ao nui tūturu e whai ana i ngā ture ōkiko kua whakaritea.
Kaore he rohenga kōpae i waenganui i te hauā me te mokowā Earth's, i te mea ka āta whakawhāititia te hauhau me te whakapiki i te teiteitanga.
He korohū ano, he taitoto, he puehu, he matakōkiri iti.
Ahakoa ko te Earth anake te tinana i roto i te pūnaha o te kōmaru e mōhiotia ana hei tautoko i te ora, e tohu ana ngā whakaaturanga i mua noa atu i te aorangi, he tinana wai rewa tōna i runga i te mata.
Mēnā kei te tīariari te ora i runga i te Mars, tērā pea kei raro iho ia i te wāhi e tīari tonu ana te wai.
Ko te Observation te hopu kaha i nga korero mai i tetahi putake tuatahi.
I whanakehia te inenga kia ahei ai te tuhi me te whakataurite i nga kitenga i nga waa me nga waahi rereke, e nga taangata rereke.
I te inenga ko te maha o nga waeine paerewa e rite ana ki te kitenga ka kiia.
I hangaia ngā taputapu pūtaiao hei āwhina i ngā mātauranga tangata, pēnei i ngā tauine mātauranga, ngā karaka, ngā whārahi, ngā whārahi, ngā ine, ngā kāmera, me ngā hopu reo rīpene, ā, i whakamāoritia hoki ki ngā takahanga ātaahua e kore e taea e ngā tohu, pērā ki ngā tae tohu, ngā ine, ngā kāmera inoi
Hei tauira, kaore e taea te tirotiro i te pēhanga hau i roto i te tupare motuka me te kore e puta te hau, nā reira ka huri te pēhanga.
Hei tauira, e kore e taea te taki i te pēhanga hau i roto i tētahi rohe kāinga me te kore tuku atu i ētahi o te hau, nā reira ka huri ai i te pēhanga.
E Quantum ngā kaiaka mīhini: I roto i ngā kaiaka mīhini whakahapa, e pā ana ki te whanonga o ngā ahanoa iti rawa, kāore e taea te mātaki i tētahi pūnaha me te kore huri i te pūnaha, me whakaaro hoki te "kaitirotiro" ki tētahi wāhanga o te pūnaha e mātakina ana.
Ko te whakaaro o te tangata e puta mai ana i te tukanga matatini, e kore e mōhiotia, e kitea ana, e maumaharatia ai ētahi taipitopito o ngā raraunga pūoko taumai, a, ka warewaretia ērā atu.
Ā tōna wā ka maumaharatia ngā takahanga, ka whakakīa pea ngā āputa pūmahara e ngā raraunga tika"" ka whakaritea e te hinengaro kia uru ki te tauira; e kiia nei ko te pūmahara waihanga anō."
I roto i te hinengaro, e kiia ana tēnei he tītaha whakaū.
Hei tauira, me whakaaro tātau e kite ana te kaitirotiro i te matua e patu ana i ta raua tamaiti; A, ko te tikanga kia kitea he pai, he kino ranei taua mahi.
Research ko "ngā mahi auaha, ā-pūnaha hoki e whakanuia ai te kara o te mātauranga."
Hei whakamātau i te tika o ngā taputapu, ngā hātepe, ngā whakamātautau rānei, ka taea e te rangahau te tārua i ngā huānga o ngā kaupapa o mua, te kaupapa katoa rānei.
He pūāhua pūtake-matua tēnei rauemi.
I roto i te mahi whakamātautau, ko te tikanga ko te kitenga hāngai, tōtika rānei o ngā kaupapa kua rangahautia, hei tauira, i roto i te taiwhanga, i te āpure rānei, he tuhinga te whakaahuatanga, ngā hua me ngā whakamutunga o tētahi whakamātautau, te huinga whakamātau rānei, ka tuku rānei i tētahi whakamāramatanga kōrero o ngā hua o mua.
Ko te tūranga taketake o te rangahau kei waenganui i ngā paearu matua kia whakaputaina ngā tuhipānui i roto i ngā pukapuka ā-wānanga, ā, i te nuinga o te wā ka whakaūria mā te arotakenga a te hoa.
Ka homai e tēnei rangahau he mōhiohio pūtaiao me ngā kaupapa mō te whakamārama i te āhuatanga me ngā āhuatanga o te ao.
Scientific ka taea te rangahau te wehewehe ki ngā taunahatanga rerekē e ai ki ō rātou whakatakotoranga mātauranga me te taupānga.
Kaore ngā pūāhua mātauranga Humanities i te nuinga o te wā e rapu i te whakautu tika o te pātai, engari, hōparatia ngā take me ngā taipitopito e karapoti ana i taua pātai.
Historians whakamahia ngā pūtake matua me ētahi atu whakaaturanga hei tirotiro i tētahi kaupapa, kātahi ki te tuhi i ngā kōrero ki te āhua o ngā pūkete o mua.
Me whakatika te rangahau mā te hono i tōna hiranga ki te mōhio kē mō te kaupapa.
Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia he ariā hai mahi matapae ka taea te whakamātau mā te mātaki i te hua o te whakamātautau.
Ka whakamahia tēnei reo tūpato nā te mea e mōhio ana ngā kaihautū ka ōrite hoki pea ngā tinihanga ki nga kitenga.
I te pai o te tika o te tirohanga i te roanga o te wā, ka kore pea te ariā e homai he matapae tika.
Artistic rangahau kua tautuhia e te School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm i roto i nga tikanga e whai ake nei - "Artistic rangahau he tirotiro me te whakamatautau me te kaupapa kia whiwhi matauranga i roto, mo a tatou mahi toi."
E āhei ana te rangahau Artistic ki te whakarei ake i te mātauranga me te mātauranga ki te whakaaturanga o nga toi.
E ai ki te rehetoi Hakan Topal, i roto i te rangahau tohunga, tērā pea nui ake i ētahi atu whakatinanatanga, ka whakamahia te whakatinana hei aratuka hei tohu i tētahi awhe whānui o ngā ōritetanga huarahi hou, ohorere hoki""."
Hei tauira, tērā pea ko te rangahau papamuri ko ngā rangahau wāwāhi, rangahau ā-ā-wā rānei.
Ka kitea e te arotakenga tuhinga ngā hē, ngā puare rānei i roto i te rangahau o mua e whakatautika ana mō te akoranga.
He whakaōrite pea te pātai rangahau ki te ariā.
Kātahi ka tātari me te whakamārama te kaitaiao i te raraunga mā ngā momo aratuka tatauranga maha, e whakauru ana ki ngā mea e mōhiotia ana hei rangahau taurangi.
Heoi anō, e tautohu ana ētahi kaihautū mo te huarahi whakamuri: e tīmata ana ki ngā kitenga whika me te matapakinga o aua mea, me te neke i te "whakarunga" ki te kitenga o tētahi raru rangahau e puta mai ana i ngā kitenga me te arotakenga pukapuka.
I ētahi wā ka whakamahia te rangahau ine kounga hai rangahau hōpara hei take mō te tinihanga ā taihoa ake nei o te rangahau ine nui.
E honoa ana te rangahau ine nui ki te tūnga ā-ariā, ā-ariā o te pānga ā-ariā.
Ko te rangahau ine e pā ana ki te whakamātau i ngā tinihanga i pā mai i te ariā, i te whakaaro rānei i te nui o te tītohunga hua.
Mēnā ko te arotahi kia whakawhānuitia e ngā kaiuru rangahau ki tētahi iwi whānui ake, ka whakamahi te kaitaitai i te tūponotanga pūmaharatanga hei tīpako i ngā kaiuru.
Secondary ko ngā raraunga he raraunga kei te tīari kē, pērā ki te raraunga tatauranga, ka taea te whakamahi anō mō te rangahau.
He painga tā tēnei aratuka kāore e taea e te whakamahi i tētahi aratuka anake te tono.
Ehara te rangahau tauhou i te whirinoa tūturu ki te rangahau pirinoa nā te mea ka whakamahia tahitia rātou hai whakapakari i te āhua rangahau.
He maiorooro te whakahaere i ngā tikanga rangahau puta noa i ngā whenua, ā, kāore he tikanga e whakaaetia mātauranga ana ki te pēhea e whakahuatia ai.
Ahakoa te huarahi, ka mōhiotia te taupānga o ngā ariā tika ki ngā kaupapa tohetohu, he tikanga whāinga, he tikanga rangahau, ka taea te tiro hei momo whāinga matatika nā te mea kua hoatu te ariā tika ki ngā tauari rangahau tūturu o te ao.
Ko te take rangahau he tino mātauranga hei ariā mo te rangahau tākuta, ko te Waehere tino mōhio te Whakaputanga o TeKau 1964 o Te Kōrerotanga o Hekerangi.
Ko ngā āwangawanga rangahau Meta ki a ia anō me te kite i te tītaha, ngā hē ara tikanga, me ētahi atu hapa me ngā taurewa.
E kite ana ngā akonga Periphery i ngā uauatanga o te aukatitanga me te tohunga ā-ā-rū i roto i te rangahau me te tānga ā-wānanga.
Mo ngā mahi tо̄rangapū whakataurite, ko ngā whenua o te Hauāuru e tino whakaatuhia ana i roto i ngā rangahau whenua-takitahi, me te aro nui ki Uropi ki te Uru, Kanata, Ahitereiria, me Aotearoa.
Ko nga rangahau me te whanui whaiti ka kore te whanui o te iwi, ko te tikanga kaore pea nga hua e pa ki etahi atu taupori, rohe ranei.
I te nuinga o te wā, ko te tukanga arotakenga hoa ko ngā tohunga i te āpure kotahi e uiuitia ana e ngā kaiwhakatika hei tirotiro i ngā mahi tohunga i hangā e tētahi hoa ā-hoa o rātau mai i tētahi tirohanga kāore i te mōrearea, ā, i te nuinga o te wā kaore e taea te utu.
Hei tauira, ko te nuinga o ngā hapori taketake e whakaaro ana ko te āheitanga ki ētahi mōhiohio e tika ana ki te rōpū me whakatau e ngā pātahitanga.
Ka rerekē te pūnaha mā te āpure, ā, kei te huri i ngā wā katoa, mēnā ka pōturi.
Ka kitea ēnei momo rangahau i roto i ngā pātengi raraunga mō ēnei pātengi raraunga me ngā tākupu.
Ko ngā momo tānga e whakaaetia ana hei koha mātauranga, rangahau rānei, rerekē rawa atu i waenga i ngā āpure, mai i te tā ki te hōputu hiko.
He rereke nga tauira pakihi i te taiao hiko.
He tokomaha nga kairangahau matua (pēnei i ngā kaiārahi rōpū) e pau ana te nui o to rātau wā ki te tono moni rangahau.
Ko te tikanga pūtaiao he tikanga ātaahua mo te whiwhi mātauranga kua whakaahua i te whanaketanga o te pūtaiao mai i te rau tau 17 i te itinga rawa (me ngā tohunga mōhio i nga rau tau o mua).
Ko nga tikanga ēnei o te tikanga pūtaiao, e whakaritea ana i nga rārangi hipanga pūmau e pā ana ki nga taikete pūtaiao katoa.
He kōrero te whakapae, i runga i te mātauranga i whiwhi i a ia e rapu ana i ngā whakautu ki te pātai.
He uaua kei roto i tētahi tauākī tātai o te aratuka.
I puta mai te kupu aratuka pūtaiao"" i te rau tau 19, i te wā ka puta he āhuatanga nui o te whakatakotoranga pūtaiao, ā, ko ngā tapanga e whakatū ana i ngā rohenga mārama i waenganui i te pūtaiao me te pūtaiao-kore, pērā ki te ""pūtaiao", me te ""tōmua", ka puta mai."
Gauch 2003, me Te Tow 2010 e whakahē ana ki te kerēme a Feyerabend; I te wā o ta rātau uiuinga, ko nga kaiwhakangahau kia tūpato i a rātau rawa.
Kaitohutohu a Robert Nola me Howard Sankey, i roto i ta raatau pukapuka Theories of Scientific Method, 2007, i kii ko nga tautohetohe mo te tikanga putaiao, me te kii ko Feyerabend, ahakoa te taitara o Against Method, i whakaae ki etahi ture tikanga me te tarai ki te whakatika i aua ture me te meta tikanga.
Ko te waahanga o te ao putaiao kei roto i te tikanga putaiao ko te empiricism.
E whakapae ana te tikanga pūtaiao, ko te whakakitenga, tōrangapū, kurī whakapono rānei, e tono ana ki te whakarerekētanga, ki ngā whakaaro whānui, ki ngā ariā noa iho, kei te mau rānei i tēnei wā, ko ngā tikanga anake e taea ai te whakaatu i te pono.
Mai i te rautau 16, ka whakatairangahia nga whakamatautau e Francis Bacon, ka mahia e Giambattista della Porta, Johannes Kepler, me Galileo Galilei.
Pēnei i era atu waahanga pakirehua, ka taea e te ptaiao (na roto i te tikanga putaiao) te whanake i runga i nga mohiotanga o mua me te whanake i te maarama ake o ana kaupapa ako i roto i te waa.
Ka kitea tēnei tauira hai whakaaro i te hurihanga pūtaiao.: "
Tērā pea ka rongoātia e te rongoā hou te mate i ētahi o te iwi i roto i taua iwi, pērā ki te whakamatautau rongoā i te rongoā.
He tūmanako ēnei matapae mo nga hua o te whakamātautau.
Ko te rereketanga i waenga i te wawata me te tino tohu e tohu ana ko wai te whakapae e pai ake ana te whakamaarama i nga raraunga ka puta mai i te whakamatautau.
E ai ki te matatinitanga o te whakamātautau, ka hiahiatia pea te whitiauau o te tukanga hei kohikohi i ngā taunaki tika hei whakautu i te pātai mā te maia, ki te hanga rānei i ētahi atu whakautu ki ngā pātai tino tauwhāiti, hei whakautu i tētahi pātai whānui ake.
Ko nga tauira rerekee-a-X o te DNA na Florence Bell i roto i tana Ph.D. tuhinga (1939) he orite ki (ahakoa kaore i tino pai) "whakaahua 51" ", engari i haukotia tenei rangahau e nga mahi o te World War II."
Huna 1952 - I tutuki pai a Watson ki te whiwhi pikitia X-ray o TMV e whakaatu ana i te tauira tohutohu e rite ana ki te panoni o te torino.: "
Ko tēnei matapae he hanga pāngarau, he take motuhake i te raruraru koiora kei te ringa.
"Ehara te DNA i te maurea."""
Hei tauira, ko te maha o ngā aho i roto i te iwi tuarā o te torino (i whakapaetia e Crick e 2 ngā aho, engari i whakatūpatotia Watson kia āta tirohia tērā e tino nui ake ana), te tauwāhi o ngā pūtake takirua (i roto i te iwiwi, i waho rānei o te tūru), te aha atu.
Engari whakaae ana a Wilkins i muri noa i te wehenga o Franklin: ""
Kātahi ia rāua ko Crick i whakaputa i to rāua tauira, mā te whakamahi i tēnei mōhiohio me ngā mōhiohio i mōhiotia i mua e pā ana ki te hanganga a DNA, otirā ko ngā ture a Chargaff mō te takiruatanga pūtake.:
Mō ngā hua nui, whakamīharo rānei, ka ngana anō ētahi atu pūtaiao ki te tārua i ngā hua mō rātou anō, mehemea he mea hira aua hua ki a rātou ake mahi.
Peer te arotakenga hoa e tohu i te tika o ngā hua, arā, ki te whakaaro o te kaiarotake, he oro ngā whakamātautau (i runga anō i te whakaahuatanga i hōmai e te kaiwhakamatau).
Ka nui ake te āhuatanga o ngā pūtaiao whakamātautau i te pūtaiao pāpori ki ēnei huānga tikanga me te whakahaere tikanga.
Ko ngā huānga o runga e whakaakona ana i roto i te pūnaha akoranga hei "te tikanga pūtaiao."
Hei tauira, i te wā i whakaputaina e te Einstein nga Ariā Motuhake, Ahuwhānui hoki o Relativity, kaore a ia i whakakāhore, i whakahekea rānei te Pirinihipia a Newton.
I te nuinga o te wā, ko te kohinga ā-pūnaha o ngā inenga, ngā tatau rānei o ngā nui e hāngai ana, ko te rerekētanga nui i waenganui i ngā pūtaiao kikokiko, pēnei i te alkihau, me te pūtaiao, pēnei i te ihirangi, ihirangi rānei.
Ka taea hoki te tātaitai i nga rangirua ma te whakaaro i nga rangirua o te nuinga tuatahi i whakamahia.
Ko te tikanga whakahaere o tētahi mea e whakawhiriwhiri ana ki ngā whakataurite ki ngā paerewa: ko te whakamāramatanga mahinga o te papatipu"" i te mutunga ka whakawhiriwhiri ki te whakamahinga o tētahi mahi whakawhitiwhiti, pēnei i tētahi kirokaramu o te platinum-iridium e puritia ana i tētahi taiwhanga i France."
Ka whakaahuatia ngā nuinga pūtaiao e a rātau wae ine, ā, e taea te whakaahua mā ngā wae ōkiko pūnoa ina whakakitea te mahi.
E hia mano tau te roa o te inenga, mai i nga Chaldeans, India, Peresian, Greek, Arabs, me nga tohunga matakite o European, ki te aata tuhi i te nekehanga o te ao Earth.
Ko te Rereketanga i kitea mo te maatauranga o Mercury'si i waenga i te ariā o Newtonian me te maataki tetahi o nga mea i pa ki a Albert Einstein hei whakamatautau wawe mo Te Kaupapa o te Whanaungatanga Whanui.
Scientists e wātea ana ki te whakamahi i ō rātou rawa – tō rātou ake huarahi, o ētahi atu āpure, te take inoi, te Bayesian tōpūtanga, me ērā atu – ki te whakaaro i ngā whakamāramatanga mō tētahi tītohunga i raro i te mātauranga.
Scientists Whakamahia ēnei whakaritenga hei whakapā atu ki tētahi ariā e whai ana i ngā take e mōhiotia ana, engari he tino ngāwari, he ngāwari hoki te raweke.
He mea nui kia kore e mōhiotia te hua o te whakamātautau i tēnei matapae i tēnei wā.
Mēnā kāore ngā matapae e taea e te kitenga, mōhio rānei, kāore anō kia whakamātauria te ariā, ā, ka noho pērā tonu te āhua kāore i te āhua.
I whakatakoto tēnei he 'x hangai' te tauira momotuhi X-ray a DNA.
I ētahi wā e hē ana te mahi whakamātautau, kāore rānei i te tino pai te hoahoa ina whakaritea ki tētahi whakamātautau nui.
Ka whakamahi tēnei mahi i te pūrata i waenga i ngā tauira maha, ngā kitenga, ngā tokomaha rānei, i raro i ngā here rerekē, hei kite he aha ngā rerekē, he aha rānei e ōrite ana.
Ko te tātaritanga āhuatanga tētahi tikanga mō te kite i te āhuatanga hira o tētahi pānga.
Ahakoa ko te eke rererangi mai i New York ki Paris he whakamatautau e whakamatautau ana i nga whakapae rererangi whakamahia mo te hanga rererangi.
I kitea tonutia e Franklin nga kohakore i puta i te wai o te Awangawanga.
Ki te kore e taea te whakawātea i tētahi pūtaiao, ka whakamāramatia anōtia te kaupapa e whakaarotia ana.
Ka tīmata pea ētahi atu kaipūtaiao i a rātau ake rangahau, ka tāuru i te tukanga ahakoa te wāhanga.
Ko te mea nui, ko ngā hua whakamātautau me ngā ariā me whakaputa anō e ētahi i roto i te iwi pūtaiao.
Ko te whakamāramatanga pai ki te matapae, he pai ake tōna painga i te nuinga o te wā, ā, ka pai ake te whakamārama i te tinana o te whakaaturanga i ōna whirinoa.
He rerekē nga tauira pūtaiao i te āhuatanga kua whakamātauria whakamātautautia ā-whakamātautautia, pēhea te roa, me te whakaaetanga ki te iwi pūtaiao.
Ki te kitea taua whakaaturanga, tērā pea ka marohitia he ariā hōu, e kitea ana rānei he rawaka ngā whakarerekētanga ki te ariā o mua hei whakamārama i te whakaaturanga hou.
Hei tauira, i whakamātauria e ngā ture a Newton e hia mano nga tau o nga kitenga pūtaiao o nga aorangi e tata ana ki te tino tika.
I te mea he tino whānui ake pea ngā kaupapa hou i ngā mea i mua atu i a rātou, ā, ko te tikanga kia nui ake te whakamārama i ngā mea o mua, ka taea pea e ngā kaupapa whakakapi te tūtaki i tētahi paerewa teitei ake mā te whakamārama i tētahi tinana nui ake o ngā kitenga i o rātou tuarā.
Ina oti te whakaaro hanganga me te kati, he maha ngā taipitopito me ngā pānga kua whakaritea, ka tukuna e ia te parenga matatū ki tētahi mea e whakahē ana."
Ka āhei ōna angitu ki te whiti, engari he āhuatanga tērā o te āhua.
"Ko te aratuka o te tāmua - e whakanui ana i te āhua e iti iho ana te āhua, engari ka whakawhanake i ngā whakaaro pēnei i tētahi mea pēnei i te ngahau, e ara ana ki te kōrerorero me ngā tauritenga o ngā tirohanga e ai ki ""te mea e whakaae ana ki te take."""
He ūnga tēnā ki tawhiti, tata rānei, pērā i te pono ki a koe, ki a au rānei, ki te hapori tāpae rānei.
Na te whiungatanga, ka wehewehea e Peirce te kōkuhutanga hei inoi, i runga anō i te whakamātautau, ko te āhua o te pono i roto i te whakapae.
I te nuinga o te wā, e whakaaro ana te hinengaro tōtika e hē ana.
Peirce, Charles S. (1902), tono Carnegie, tirohia te MS L75.329330, mai i te Draft D o Memoir 27: Na reira, ko te kimi noa he tere ake i tetahi kaupapa ka puta wawe mai ranei, mena kaore i raru. ma matou ano e rapu. "
Na reira, ko te whakahaere i te tahae, he take nui na te heuretic ana ko te patai tuatahi mo te heuretic, me whakahaere e nga whakaaro ohaoha. "
Ko te ariā, he korehaumaru, me whai take māia, i ahu mai ki ngā whakamātautau ā-hinengaro, a, i roto i te pūtaiao, e tuku ana i a rātau ki ngā whakamātau pūtaiao.
Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) Akene ka ki tetahi, "te mea ngaro mure o te ao ko te maarama." ""
Ko enei whakaaro mai i te maaramatangatanga tikanga he kaupapa e whakatauhia ai te putaiao.
Ko ana mōhiotanga ki te mahi pūtaiao he pāporitanga nui, ā, kaore e kōrero ki te tikanga o te pūtaiao, ka taea rānei te whakamahi i ētahi wā me ētahi atu ahurea.
Ka whakatuwherahia e ia te Upoko 1 me te korerorero mo nga tinana Golgi me ta ratau whakakahoretanga tuatahi hei taonga kore tikanga, me te korerorero mo Brahe me Kepler e tirotiro ana i te ata ka kite i te rereke "o te ra ahakoa nga ahuatanga o te tinana."
Ko te take, e kī ana a ia mō ētahi aratuka tauwhāiti, pūnoa rānei o te pūtaiao, ka kitea e te tangata tētahi wāhanga hītori, nā te tūkinotanga i āwhina ki te kauneketanga o te pūtaiao.
Ko nga whakawāwā tūturu o te pūtaiao ko rātau anō te take o te tautohetohe tino nui.
Ko ngā tauira, i roto i te pūtaiao me te pāngarau, me hāngai ā-roto, ā, me whakawātea hoki (ka taea te whakatūpato).
Hei tauira, i puta ake te ariā hangarau o te wā ki te pūtaiao, ā, he āhuatanga o te kaupapa pāngarau te pāngarau.
Ko te pepa a Eugene Wigner, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, he korero tino rongonui mo te take mai i tetahi tohunga ahupūngao toa Nobel.
I roto i ngā Whakatikatanga me ngā Whakakāhore, Lakatos i hoatu ngā ture taketake maha hei kimi whakatika me ngā tauwhāiti ki ngā kōrero.
Tērā pea ka whakamārama tēnei i te take i tino whakapuaki ai nga kaipūtaiao he waimarie rātau.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Ngā Pāhono.
Koina tenei e kiia ana e Nassim Nicholas Taleb "Anti-fragility" ", ahakoa e ngoikore ana etahi punaha tirotiro i te aroaro o te he o te tangata, o te taangata o te tangata, o te tupurangi hoki, ko te tikanga putaiao he nui ake i te aukati he uaua ranei - he tino painga ki a he tupurangi noa tenei i roto i nga tini huarahi (he anti-pakarukaru). "
Mā ēnei hua ohorere ka whakamātau nga kairapu ki te whakatika i tā rātou whakaaro he hapa i roto i tā rātou aratuka.
Ko te ariā pūtaiao he whakamārama i tētahi āhuatanga o te ao tūturu me te ao nui, kua rite tonu te whakamātautau me te manatoko e ai ki te aratuka pūtaiao, mā te whakamahi i ngā kawa whakaae o te tirohanga, inenga, me te arotakenga o ngā hua.
Kua mārama nga kaupapa pūtaiao kua whakatūria ki te tirotiro uaua, a, ka whakatinana i te mōhiotanga pūtaiao.
Stephen Jay Gould i tuhi ki tēnā "... He rerekē ngā āhuatanga me ngā kaupapa, kaore i roto i te aroākapa o te whakanui i te mātātoa.
He tino rerekē te tikanga o te kupu ariā pūtaiao (i te nuinga o te wā ki te whaikōrero mo te āhuatanga pūtaiao) i runga anō i te tikanga o te akoranga pūtaiao i te whakamahinga kupu taunoa o te ariā.
I ia rā, ka taea e te ariā te tohu whakamārama i tētahi whakamāramatanga e tohu ana i tētahi matapae tūturu, tātai noa, engari i roto i te pūtaiao e whakaatu ana i tētahi whakamāramatanga kua whakamātauria, ā, ka whakaaetia whānuitia hei whaimana.
Ko ētahi o ngā kaupapa e tino mātauranga ana, kāore e tino hurihia (hei tauira, ngā kaupapa pūtaiao pēnei i te kunenga, te ariā pūtau, te ariā pūtau, te ariā o ngā āhuatanga pereti, te ariā me ngā āhuatanga tūroro o te mate, te aha atu).
He whakamatautau nga kaupapa pūtaiao, a, ka whakawāteatia nga matapae.
Ko te āhuatanga whakarite o te mātauranga pūtaiao katoa, tae atu ki ngā kaupapa akoranga, ko te āheitanga ki te whakawātea i ngā matapae e taea te whakawātea, te whakamātautau rānei.
E tautoko ana e te maha o ngā aho whakaaturanga takitahi, ehara i te kaupapa kotahi.
Ko te ariā o te kunenga koiora, he nui ake i te "ariā noa iho."
Mā tēnei e whakaatu te whakaaturanga, mo te whakaaro rānei.
He maha nga tau e roa ai tēnei, he uaua, he uaua rānei ki te kohikohi i ngā whakaaturanga tika.
Ko te kaha o te whakaaturanga e tirohia ana e te iwi pūtaiao, ā, ko ngā whakamātautau hira rawa ka tāruatia e nga rōpū takitahi maha.
I roto i te matu, he maha nga kaupapa waikawa e whakamārama ana i te āhuatanga waikawa me ngā mea taketake o te āhuatanga waikawa me te taketake, engari he tino whai painga mō te matapae i o rātau whanonga matū.
Ko te whakaaetanga ki tētahi ariā kāore e hiahiatia kia whakamātauria ōna matapae nui katoa, mēnā kua tautoko kētia e te whakaaturanga kaha rawa.
Ka hiahia pea ngā rongoā ki ngā huringa iti, nui rānei ki te ariā, kāore rānei mēnā ka kitea he whakamāramatanga pai i roto i te anga tīariari o te ariā.
Mēnā he iti rawa ngā whakarerekētanga ki te ariā, ki ētahi atu whakamāramatanga rānei ki te pūkete mō ngā hua hōu, ka hiahiatia pea tētahi ariā hōu.
Koia tēnei nā te mea koia tonu te whakamāramatanga pai rawa atu mō ētahi atu tītohunga maha, e manatokona ana e tōna hiko matapae i roto i ētahi atu horopaki.
I muri i ngā huringa, ka whakamāramatia e te ariā kua whakaaetia he nui ake te tītohunga, ā, ka nui ake te mana matapae (ki te kore, kāore e whakaaetia ngā huringa); kātahi ka tuwhera tēnei whakamāramatanga hōu ki te whakakapinga anō, ki te whakarerekētanga rānei.
Hei tauira, ināianei kua mōhiotia te hiko me te autōnuku he āhua e rua o te tītohunga ōrite, e kiia ana ko te hikohikotanga.
I whakataua tēnei e te kitenga o te hono karihi, te pūtake pūngao matua o te Rā.
Na te whakakore i te whanaungatanga motuhake o te aiter luminiferous, i kii a Einstein ko te roa o te waa me te roa o te waa e whangangahia ana i roto i tetahi mea e neke ana te nekehanga - ara, he tere tonu te whakaatu mai o te mea, he tere me te ahunga, ina ka meangahia e te kaimanaaki.
Einstein i rapu ki te whakawhānui i te kaupapa pūmautanga ki ngā tāpare tohutoro katoa, ahakoa whakarewa, whakatere rānei.
Ahakoa te pūngao tōpū kore, ka whakakaha i te nekeneke tō-ā-papa ki ngā ahanoa paetata mā te "curving" i te āhuahanga "mata" o te wā-mokowā 4D.
Heoi anō, he pūrongo whakamārama nga ture pūtaiao mo te whanonga o te āhua i raro i ētahi tikanga.
Ko te pōhēhētanga whānui he āhuatanga pūnoa nga ariā pūtaiao e puta ai ki ngā ture pūtaiao ina whakaputua ngā raraunga me ngā whakaaturanga.
Ka taea te whakawātea nga kaupapa me nga ture e whakawāteatia ana ma te whakaaturanga whakatikatika.
He tauira te arorau raupapa-tuatahi o tētahi reo whai tikanga.
I whakamātauria e nga kaupapa te tītohunga, mehemea kāore i taea te mātakina tika e ngā āhuatanga (hei tauira, he ngota me nga ngaru irirangi), i kitea he ariā ā-ariā ā-ariā.
Ka whakamahia te kīanga "te tirohanga i whiwhia ki ngā kaupapa" ki te whakaahua i tēnei haerenga.
Ka taea e tētahi te whakamahi reo hei whakaahua i tētahi tauira; engari, ko te ariā te tauira (he kohinga tauira ōrite rānei), ehara i te whakaahuatanga o te tauira.
Mā ngā tawhā tauira, hei tauira, Newton's Law of Gravitation, e whakatau me pēhea te huringa o ngā tūnga me ngā tere me te wā.
E tohu ana te kupu "tohu" ki te āhua e tohu ana te tauira i te ao tūturu.
Ka whakarite te mahi pūkaha i ngā tauira pāngarau me "ngā tauira ōkiko"; ka taea te mōkito mā te waihanga i tētahi tauira pāngarau mā te waihanga i tētahi tauira pāngarau mā tētahi mōkī pūmanawa rorohiko, pēnei i te utauta hoahoa āwhina rorohiko."
E hiahiatia ana ētahi whakaaro mō ngā kerēme katoa (hei tauira, ko te whakaaro kei te tīariari te tika).
Tērā pea he ngāwari tēnei ki te mātaki i ngā matapae tika ka whakatakotohia e te ariā, he whakaaturanga kei te tika ngā whakaaronga i te tīmatanga, e tika ana rānei i raro i ngā here i whakamātauria.
Ka whakatakoto matapae tika te ariā ina whaimana te whakaaro, ā, kāore e tika ana nga matapae ki te kore te whakaaro i te whaimana.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) me te ipurangi Wiktionary e tohu ana i tana putake Latin hei kaiarahi ( "whakaae, ki te tango ki a ia ano, tango, tango" "), he hononga ki te ad- (" "ki, ki, ki te" ") ka sumere (ki te tango)."
I whakamahia tuatahitia te kupu i roto i nga horopaki whakapono penei i roto i te " ki te tango ki runga ki te rangi ", ina koa " te tangohanga o te wahine a Meri ki te rangi, me te tinana i tiakina mai i te pirau ", (1297 CE) engari he mea noa ano hoki. whakamahia ki te korero ki "receive into association" or "adpt into partnership".
Me tatau noa nga whakapumautanga mena he hua o nga matapae morearea; ara, mehemea, kare i whakamaramatia e te ariā e korerotia nei, me tumanako tatou ki tetahi huihuinga kaore e taurite ki te ariā—he kaupapa e whakahē ana i te ariā.
Ko te ariā e kore e taea te whakakorekore e tetahi kaupapa ka taea te whakaaro he kore putaiao.
Ko etahi o nga kaupapa pono e taea ana te whakamatautau, ka kitea ana he teka, ka mau tonu pea e te hunga e whakamihia ana — hei tauira ma te whakauru i te pou hoc (i muri i te meka) etahi whakapae awhina, whakaaro ranei, ma te whakamaori ranei i te kaupapa pou hoc kia kore ai e puta whakakahoretanga.
I whakarāpopototia e Popper i ēnei kо̄rero mā te kii ko te paearu nui mо̄ te mana putaiao o te ariā ko tana "whakapaetanga, he whakakahoretanga ranei, he whakamatautau ranei" "."
He maha nga tohungatanga me nga tangata hitori o te putaiao kua puta, i kii, ko te whakamaoritanga a Popper i te kaupapa hei whakaatu i nga korero whakapae he na te mea, e ai ki ta Philip Kitcher i kii ai, mena i tino whaiwhakaaro nga Popperian ki nga "ariā", nga kitenga o I te wa i kitea tuatahihia a Uranus i te 1781, kua "" whakapohehe "ia i nga miihini rangi o Newton."
Fecundity: "He ariā pūtaiao nui, pēnei i a Newton, e whakatuwhera ana i ngā wāhi rangahau hou..
I nga wa katoa, ka nui ake nga patai ka taea e ia te whakautu i tenei wa.
Pēnei i ētahi atu tikanga o ngā kaupapa, tae atu ki a Popper, ka whakamāramatia e Kitcher me whai kōrero tauākī e kitea ana e te ariā.
Tērā pea ka whakaritea ki runga pepa hei pūnaha ture, ā, ko te nui ake o tētahi ariā kia tino tika rawa ka taea te puru i aua whakaritenga.
Ko ngā aronga pāngarau tauwhāiti o te ariā ā-autōhiko māori e kīa ana ko "ngā ture o te autōhiko," e whakaata ana i te taumata o ngā tohu pūmau, whakarārangi hoki e tautoko ana i a rātou.
Ko tētahi tauira o tērā pea ko te tōpana tauhohenga.
Ko te kaipūtaiao, he tangata e whakahaere ana i te rangahau pūtaiao hai whakahaere i te mātauranga i runga i te wāhi whai hua.
Ko ngā kaipūtaiao o ngā kōkā rerekē (i mua hoki, ko ngā pūkenga maori, ko ngā kaipātaiao māori, ko ngā pūtaiao māori, o ngā kaipūao, me ētahi atu i āwhina ki te whakawhanaketanga o te pūtaiao) he nui ō rātou wāhi i roto i te iwi, me ngā tikanga tāngata pāpori, me ngā mōhiohio mō ngā kaipūtaiao
He tokomaha nga kaipūtaiao o te Islamic Golden Age e whakaarotia ana he taumaha, nā te iti o ngā mea e ōrite ana ki ngā whakahau pūtaiao o nāianei.
Ko nga tohutohu i tae mai i runga i te tikanga tino arorau e noho putu ana mo te rangirua.
Descartes ehara anake i te pūtake o te āhuahanga whakairo, engari i whakatakotoria he kaupapa mīhini me ngā whakaaro tiketike mō te take o te koiri kararehe me te whakaaro.
I hōmai e ia he āhuatanga whānui o nga kaiaka mīhini puihi, a, ka tirotirohia he mārama me nga whakaata.
I kitea e ia he whakahau e pā ana ki te taura tuaiwi o te poroka, ka puta ake i te uaua puta noa i tōna tinana.
Ko Lazzaro Spallanzani tētahi o ngā whika tino mātauranga i roto i te oropi whakamātautau me nga pūtaiao māori.
Heoi anō, kāore he tukanga whai tikanga hei whakatau ko wai he kaipūtaiao, ā, ehara nei i te kaipūtaiao.
Neke atu i te hawhe o nga kaiwhakautu e hiahia ana ki te whai i tētahi umanga i roto i te whare mātauranga, he iti ake ngā wāhanga e tūmanako ana kia mahi i roto i ngā taiao umanga, kāwanatanga, whai rawa kore hua.
E whakakite ana rātau i tētahi tino whakamatemate mo te rangirua.
E hiahia ana ētahi pūtaiao ki te hoatu i te mātauranga pūtaiao mo te whai painga o te hauora o te tangata, o nga iwi, te ao, te āhua, te hunga mahi rānei (kaipūtaiao pūtaiao mātauranga me ngā kaipūtaiao mahi).
Kei roto i ēnei ko te kohikohiko me te koiora, i te tuatahi o te koiora rāpoi ngota me te kaupapa huinga tangata.
E rua nga tāne i whakaurua e te whika hai wāhine.
Ko ngā āhuatanga hāngai ko ngā pāpātanga o te supernova, ngā paheko hihi kama, ngā paetara, ngā pātaratara, ngā pulsakō, me ngā pūhāpātanga o te papamuri rorohiko.
Ko te mātauranga tūturu tētahi o nga pūtaiao māori tawhito rawa.
I mua, i whakaurua nga whakatakotoranga mātauranga, he rerekē ano he whetu, he whakaterenga rangitahi, he kitenga tatari, me te hanga maramataka.
E arotahi ana te kitenga tātairangi ki te whiwhi raraunga mai i ngā kitenga o ngā ahanoa toronga kore.
Ko ēnei āpure e rua e tauwhiti ana ki a rāua.
E ai ki ngā whakamāramatanga pākaha o te papakupu, "astronomi" e pā ana ki "te akoranga o ngā ahanoa me te take i waho o te āhuatanga Earth's, o ā rātou āhuatanga kikokiko, matū hoki," i te wā e pā ana te "whānuitanga o te mātauranga tātaitai ki ngā whanonga, ngā āhuatanga ā-tinana, me ngā tikanga hihiri o ngā mea ā-rangitahi me te hurihanga"."
Ko ētahi whīra, pēnei i te mātakitaki whetu, he tātai arorangi, ehara i te mātaki whetu noa iho.
Mai i enei kitenga, i hangaia nga whakaaro moata mo nga nekehanga o nga aorangi, me te ahuatanga o te Sun, Moon me te Earth o te Ao i tirotirohia e te tangata o te hinengaro.
Ko tētahi tino nui o te whanaketanga o mua, ko te tīmatanga o te mātai pāngarau me ngā mātaitai pūtaiao, i tīmata i waenganui i te Babylonians, nāna i whakatakoto i nga tūāpapa mo nga tikanga tohunga o muri ake, i tupu i roto i ētahi atu iwi maha.
E Greek ka whakaahuatia te mātaitai tātaitai mai i te tīmatanga, na te rapu i te whakamāramatanga tika, ā-tinana mo te tītohunga o te rangi.
I hangaia hoki e te Hipparchus i tētahi putumōhio whānui, e 1020 ngā whetū, me te nuinga o ngā whetū o te kōpae ki te raki, i ahu mai i te mātai arorangi Kariki.
Ko Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) me Regiomontanus (1436–1476) i awhina i te ahunga whakamua o te ao ki te whanaketanga o Copernicus i te tauira heliocentric tekau tau i muri mai.
I te 964, ko te Andromeda Galaxy, te tupuni nui rawa atu o te Roopu Rohe, i whakaahuahia e te Persian Muslim kairangahau a Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi i roto i tana pukapuka Fixed Stars.
He maha nga ingoa Arabic i whakamahia inaianei mo nga whetu takitahi i taua wa.
I tuhia e te kaituhi korero a Songhai a Mahmud Kati he ua meteor i Akuhata 1583.
Kepler te tuatahi ki te whakatakoto i tētahi pūnaha e whakaahua tika ana i nga taipitopito o te mahinga o nga aorangi huri noa i te Sun.
Neke atu i te 3000 nga whetu i tuhia e te kaitirotiro whetu English a John Flamsteed, whetū He maha ake nga Putumōhio i hangaia e Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.
Na Joseph-Louis Lagrange raua ko Pierre Simon Laplace tenei mahi i whakapai ake, i taea ai te whakatau i te tini o nga aorangi me nga marama mai i o raatau raruraru.
I whakataua he rite tonu nga whetū ki te Earth's anō te Sun, engari he whānui te whānui o te pāmahana, te nuinga me te rahinga.
Na te ariā ā-ariā i pā ki ngā taurangi i runga i te putanga o ngā ahanoa pēnei i ngā rua pango me ngā whetū o te iramoe, kua whakamahia nei ki te whakamārama i te āhua o te ariā pēnei i te ngārara, i ngā kowhitiwhiti, i ngā pouara, me ngā haupaoro irirangi.
Tērā pea ka whakakāwaitia te mātakitaki i te mātakitaki, e ai ki te rohe tūāwhiorangi ā-autōhiko e hangaia ai ngā kitenga.
Ahakoa i aweretia hāngaitia ētahi ngaru irirangi e ngā ahanoa tohunga, he hua o ngā hara wera, ko te nuinga o te harakorangi irirangi e kitea ana ko te hua o te tāwhiwhiotanga tukutahi, e puta ana ina āpure autō irahiko.
Ko ngā kitenga mai i te Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) he tino pai rawa atu ki te huaki i ngā tūhono tohatoha nui me ngā kāhui whetū kaihautū.
Ko nga atahanga o nga kitenga i tātuhia tuatahitia e te ringa.
E tika ana kia hāngai tonu te Ultraviolet tātai ki te mātai i ngā ahorawhiti wera me ngā aho harakoa pūtiotio mai i ngā whetū kikorangi wera (whetū OB) tino mārama i roto i tēnei pēne hihi.
Ka kitea hāngaitia ngā ihi gamma e ngā amiorangi pēnei i te Pātaaki Gamma Ray Observatory, mā ngā whārahi pūmahara motuhake rānei e kīa nei ko ngā whārahi pūtea o te rāwhiti.
He āpure puta noa te mātakitaki tātaitai o te arorangi Gravitational ngaru e whakamahi ana i ngā pūoko hihi-tō-ā-papa hei kohikohi i ngā raraunga kitenga mō ngā mea nunui tawhiti.
Ko te mōhiotanga hītori, mōhio tōtika ki ngā tūnga o ngā tūnga Sun, Moon, ngā ao me ngā whetū, he mea nui ki te whakaterenga rangitahi (te whakamahinga o ngā ahanoa rangitahi hei ārahi i te whakaterenga) me te hanga maramataka.
Ko te inenga o te kōauau mārama o ngā whetū pātata, ka tukuna mai he tauanga taketake i roto i te arawhata tawhiti o ngā kōnara, e whakamahia ana hei ine i te tauine o te Universe.
E pai ake ana ngā tauira Analytical o te tukanga mo te hōmai i te mātauranga whānui ake ki roto i te ngākau o nga mea e haere ana.
Mā te kite i tētahi tītohunga i matapaetia e tētahi tauira, ka taea e ngā kaitātai kōrero te tīpako i waenganui i ngā tauira whirinoa, papā rānei, hei mea pai rawa atu ki te whakaahua i te tītohunga.
I ētahi wā, mā te nui o te raraunga maiorooro i roto i te wā ka puta pea ki te whakarērea katoa o tētahi tauira.
I te mea he kaupapa tino whānui te whānui o te whānui o nga kaupapa whānui, ko te tikanga he maha ngā pūkenga o te ahupūngao, tae atu ki ngā mīhini pūkenga hiko, pūkenga tatauranga, me ngā pūkenga whāriki, pūkenga quantum, me te āhuatanga karihi me te ngota.
Ka taea te hoatu i te kupu "tīmata whetu" ki te Pūnaha o Te Kōmaru me te mea waenga.
He ōrite te kupu whakarerekē.
Ko nga tirohanga o te hanganga-nui o te Universe, he peka e mohiotia ana ko te aorangi tinana, kua tino mohio ki te hanganga me te whanaketanga o te ao.
Ka tīmata te hanganga aroākapa o te take i nga rerekētanga meneti i roto i te kōpaka rahi o te mokowā.
Gravitational nga huihuinga i whakawhānuitia hei kōkuru, ka mahue he whakakore i roto i nga āputa.
He mea nui nga momo mātauranga ahupūngao ki te ako i te ao nui.
Ko te mutunga, he mea nui te whakamutunga mo te mōhiotanga o te hanga tauine nui o te ao.
E ai ki te huatau o te ingoa, kei te ikarangi pororapa te hanga whakawhiti o te pororapa.
E kitea noatia ana ngā wākana whenua porotiti i te nuinga o nga rāpoi whakahauhau, a, tērā pea i hangaia mai i roto i nga whakakotahitanga o nga whenua rahi.
Ko te tikanga e karapoti ana nga whenua koru i te hāwhe whetū pakeke.
Mo te hauwhā o nga wahine katoa he whakahipahipa, ā, ko nga āhua hākano kē pea ko te hua o te whakawhitinga tō-ā-papa.
Ko te ikarangi irirangi he ikarangi hohe tino ngoikore i roto i te wāhanga reo irirangi o te tūāwhiorangi, ā, kai te whakaputa i te rara nui rawa, te poapoa kāhuru rānei.
Ko te hanga tauine nui o te ao nui e whakaahuatia ana e nga rōpū me ngā rāpoi whenua.
I waenganui i te Milky Way ko te uho, he tāwhara āhua ā-pae ki te mea e whakapono ana he rua pango nui i tōna waenganui.
E karapotitia ana te kōpae e tētahi halo spheroid o ngā whetū pakeke ake, te iwi whetū II, tae atu ki ngā whetū tōpū kōpaka o ngā whetū e mōhiotia ana ko te kāhui globular.
Ka tīmata ēnei hei nebulae kiato o mua, kikorangi rānei, e whakaaro ana, e tiango ana (he rōrahi e whakatauria ana e te roanga Jeans) hei hanga i ngā tīmata kiato.
Ko ēnei rāpoi e tūrere āta tūhono ana, ā, ka hono ngā whetū ki te iwi whānui o te Milky Way.
7–18 Ka taka te hanganga whetū ki nga rohe nui o te puehu me te hau, e kiia nei ko nga kapua rāpoi ngota whetū.
Tata tonu te taumaha ake o ngā huānga katoa i te hauwai me te hīmāmā i hangaia ki roto i ngā uho o ngā whetū.
Ka roa te wā ka tahuri rawatia tēnei hinu hauwai ki te hīkoi, a, ka tīmata te whetū ki te tipu.
Ko te werohanga o nga apa o waho e hanga ana i te nebula pāhīkoi.
He tau 11 tau tēnei kōpiupiutanga i roto i te tau hīkoi.
Kua pā hoki te Sun ki ngā huringa auau i roto i te pānuitanga e whai pānga nui ana ki runga i te World.
Kei runga ake i tēnei apa he rohe angiangi e mōhiotia ana ko te kōhaupapa.
I runga ake i te uho ko te rohe mōwhitiwhiti, kei reira te taitoto e whakarato ana i te pūngao mā te pūwhitiwhiti.
He hau kōmaru o ngā korakora taitoto e pūrere mai ana i waho mai i te Sun tae noa ki te tepe tōwaho o te Solar System, ka tae ki te heliopause.
I hanga nga aorangi i te 4.6 piriona tau ki muri i roto i te kopae protoplanetary e karapoti ana i te ra tuatahi.
I te wā o te taipara kaha, ka hāpaea tonutia e nga aorangi, te take e toe ana i te wā o te taipara hōhonu, i kitea e nga nui o nga māra o te Moon.
Ka taea e tēnei tukanga te hanga he uho kahu, he konganuku rānei, e karapotitia ana e te kahu me te kirinuku o waho.
Ko ētahi ao me ngā marama e whakaemi ana i te wera nui hei whakahaere i ngā tukanga matauranga pēnei i te wairua me ngā āhuatanga ā-nuku.
Ko te maumaharatanga ko te taupānga o nga tatauranga ki te whetūkūkākā ki te tātaritanga o te nui o ngā raraunga mātakitaki.
Cosmochemistry ko te akoranga o ngā matū i roto i te Solar System, tae atu ki ngā taketake o ngā huānga me ngā tāupetanga o ngā ōwehenga isotope.
Kei te ao katoa nga karapu Astronomy, a he maha nga kaupapa hei awhina i o raatau mema ki te whakarite me te whakaoti i nga kaupapa tirotiro tae atu ki te mataki i nga taonga katoa i roto i te Messier (110 taonga) Herschel 400 ranei nga tohu o te rangi po.
Ko te nuinga o nga mākete matua e mahi ana i ngā roanga ngaru e kitea ana, engari he whakamātautau iti noa iho me ngā roanga ngaru i waho o te tūāwhiotanga e kitea ana.
He tokomaha tonu ngā kaitākaro matua e whakamahi ana i ngā whārahi pūtea i te kāinga, te whakamahi rānei i ngā pūwhaiti irirangi i hangaia tuatahi mō te rangahau mātairangi, engari kei te wātea ināianei ki ngā matu (hei tauira ko te One-Mile Telescope).
E hiahiatia ana pea e ngā whakautu ki ēnei te hanganga o ngā taputapu papa hōu me te mokowā, me ngā whanaketanga hōu pea i roto i te ahupūngao ā-ariā, whakamatautau hoki.
E hiahiatia ana he mōhiotanga hōhonu atu ki te hanganga o ngā whetū me nga aorangi.
Ki te pērā, he aha te whakamāramatanga mo te kupu taurangi a Fermi?
He aha te āhua o te mea pouri me te pūngao pōuri?
He pēhea te āhua o te kanorangi tuatahi?
Astrobiology, e mōhiotia ana i mua hei āhuatanga pūtaiao, he āpure pūtaiao ā ture e mātau ana ki ngā taketake, i te kunenga o mua, i te tuaritanga, me te ao o te ao.
Ko te take me te whanaungatanga o te ora he wāhi kāore e taea te wehewehe i te whakatakotoranga whetu.
I timata pea te Biochemistry i muri tata mai i te Big Bang, 13.8 piriona tau ki muri, i te wa e nohoia ana i te 10–17 miriona tau noa iho te Universe.
Heoi, ko Earth anake te waahi o te ao e mohio ana te tangata ki te pupuri i te ora.
Ko te kupu exobiology i hangaia e te tohunga koiora molecular me te toa Nobel Prize a Joshua Lederberg.
Ko te kupu xenobiology kei te whakamahia inaianei i roto i te tikanga motuhake ake, ko te tikanga "koiora e pa ana ki te matū o kee", ahakoa he takenga mai i waho, whenua ranei (he mea waihanga).
Ahakoa i tētahi wā e whakaarotia ana i waho o te pānuitanga o te pātaitai pūtaiao, kua noho te mātauranga whetū hai papa mātauranga ā pukapuka.
I te tau 1959, i hokona e NASA tana kaupapa whakarerekē tuatahi, ā, i te tau 1960, i whakatūria e NASA tētahi Papatono Ārai Pūrua, ināianei ko tētahi o ngā huanga matua e whā o te Papatono Whetu Matawhenua o NASA onāianei.
Ko ngā nekeneketanga i roto i ngā mara o te karaehe whetu, te kitenga i te mātakitaki me te kitenga i ngā momo nui o ngā tīpoka nui me te āheinga rerenga kē i roto i ngā taiao tino āmaimai i te Earth, i puta ai ki te taurangi tērā pea ka tipu te ora i te nuinga o ngā tinana tūturu i te ao nui rawa.
Ko ngā hītori i hoahoatia hei rapu i te oranga onāianei i Mars te papatono Viking me ngā rapunga Beagle 2.
I te mutunga o te tau kotahi mano 2008, ka rapu te Phoenix nga tākuta i te taiao mo te taiao i mua, i tēnei wā, i tēnei wā, i te nohonga moroiti o te ora moroiti i Mars, a, ka rapu i te hītori o te wai i reira.
I te marama o Whiringa-a-rangi 2011, i whakarewahia e NASA te misioni o Mars Science Laboratory e mau ana i te Curiosity rover, i tau ki Mars i Gale Crater i Akuhata 2012.
Ko tetahi ko te whakaaro noa ko te nuinga o nga mea ora o to tatou tupuni he mea hanga i runga i nga mea waro, pera i nga mea ora katoa i runga i te Earth.
Ko te āhua o te hononga o te ngota waro ki ētahi atu ngota waro e āhei ana ki te hanga i nga rāpoi ngota tino roa, matatini hoki.
Ko te whakaaro tuatoru ko te arotahi ki ngā aorangi e tauwhiti ana i ngā whetū ā-Sun mō te nui ake o te tūponotanga o te nohohanga momo.
Mo tera, he maha nga taputapu i hangaia hei kite i nga exoplanets te rahi o te whenua kua whakaarohia, ko te mea nui ko te NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) me nga kaupapa Drawin a ESA, kua whakakorehia enei mea e rua.
I tātai taketaketia e Drake te tātai hei rārangi taketake mō te kōrero i te hui Green Bank, engari ko ētahi taupānga o te tātai i tango tūturu, e pā ana ki ngā tohenga māmā, ki ngā tohenga koha rānei.
Kua noho te kitenga o ngā tēpiripiripi, ngā kaimahi ora i roto i ngā taiao tino hōhonu, he tino rangahau mō ngā kaimatai whetūkākā, i te mea he mea hira kia mārama ki ngā rohe e whā i roto i ngā tepe o te ora i roto i te horopaki taonga: te kaha mo te panspermia, te tāhaetanga whakamua nā te toronga tangata
Tae noa ki te ora i roto i te moana, e kore ai e taea te rā, i whakaarotia kia whiwhi i tōna whangai, i te marangai mataora rānei i nga wai mata, i te kai kararehe rānei.
Na tēnei kemotehete i huri i te akoranga o te koiora me te mātauranga whetu mā te whakaatu e, kaua te ora e whai i te rā; e hiahiatia ana te wai me te rōnaki pūngao anake kia tīari.
Tekau nga rauropi pakari i tohua mo te kaupapa LIFE, na Amir Alexander Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, rewena Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nga kakano mai i Arabidopsis thaliana ('kiore-taringa cress'), tae atu ki te kararehe taratarakore Tardigrade.
Ko te marama o Hupita, ko Europa, ko te marama o Saturn, ko Enceladus, e kiia ana ko ngā wāhi pea mō te oranga o waho o te ao i roto i te Rauropi nā runga i o rātau moana wai i raro i te mata e taea ai te whakamahana radiogenic, me te tai kia noho te wai.
Kei roto i te puehu o te rangi e uru ana ki te ao he puhui waro uaua ("toka waro amorphous me te hanganga kakara-aliphatic whakauru") ka taea te hanga noa, me te tere, e nga whetu.
Te āhua nei kua whānuitia ngā PAH i muri i te Pahū Rahi, kua whānui puta noa i te ao nui, ā, e pāhono ana ki ngā whetu hou me ngā kokiwaha hou.
Ko te tirohanga whetu whakamātautau e torotoro ana i ngā rauemi i roto i nga oneone momo, mā te whakamahi i ngā rawa mokowā tūturu i roto i nga kōkiri.
I te tauine nui rawa atu, ko ngā māharaharatanga ā-ao ko te ao nui i roto i ngā wā mō te āhua kotahi.
Ko ngā whakaritenga motuhake ko te ōritetanga, te pūkoro pākoki me te mātao pūnoa.
Ko etahi o nga rohe o te whenua, penei i te Pilbara i Western Australia me te McMurdo Dry Valleys o Antarctica, e kiia ana he tairitenga matawhenua ki nga rohe o Mars, na reira ka taea e ratou te whakaatu tohu mo te rapu i te oranga o mua ki Mars. .
Ko te āhua nei e ōrite ana ngā paraka hanga taketake o te oranga ki ngā wāhi katoa ki ērā i te Earth, i te ahuwhānui mēnā kāore i roto i te taipitopito.
Ko te rua anake o ngā ngota tūturu, te waro me te takawai, e mōhiotia ana hei iwi tuarā o nga rāpoi ngota e tino nui ana ki te mau i ngā mōhiohio koiora.
Ko nga kaitono e wha mo te oranga i roto i te System Solar ko te aorangi Mars, te marama Jovian Europa, me nga marama o Saturn Titan me Enceladus.
I te Martian te pāmahana hahaka me te pēhanga iti, he tino tītaha te wai.
I te 11 o Hakihea 2013, ka korero a NASA i te kitenga o " kohuke rite te paru " (taapiri, he phyllosilicates), he maha nga wa e pa ana ki nga taonga pararopi, i runga i te kirinuku hukapapa o Europa.
E whakaaro ana etahi kaiputaiao ka taea e enei waiwaro wai te whakakapi i te wai i roto i nga ruma ora rereke mai i era kei runga i te Earth.
Karekau he tukanga abiotic e mohiotia ana i runga i te ao ka puta mai tona aroaro.
Ko Yamato 000593, te tuarua o nga meteorite nui rawa atu i Mars, i kitea i te Earth i te tau 2000.
I te 5 o Poutū-te-rangi 2011, Richard B. Hoover, he kaiputaiao no te Marshall Space Flight Center, i whakaaro mo te kitenga o nga microfossils e kiia ana he rite ki te cyanobacteria i roto i nga meteorite waro CI1 i roto i te taniko Journal of Cosmology, he korero i panuitia whanuitia e te hunga pāpāho auraki.
Kua kitea he whakaaturanga paeroa puta noa i te āhua o te kōmaru, ā, i runga ake i te Mars.
Mā ngā aratuka haurapa pai ake me te nui haere o te wā tirohanga e kitea e ētahi atu pūnaha tāne, ā, tērā anō pea he pēnei ake i a mātau.
Ko te whāinga kia kitea ērā rauropi e āhei ana ki te ora i ngā āhuatanga o te haere mokowā me te pupuri i te kaha matomiki.
Ka taea hoki e ēnei urupare hau te whakaae kia ora rātau i roto i ngā āhuatanga mokowā pākaha, ahakoa ka waiho anō e te kunenga ētahi rāhuitanga i runga i tō rātou whakamahinga hei whakataukitanga ki te ora āpiti.
Ka whakaae te hanganga o ngā pūkoro kia ora ai i ngā taiao tino hōhā, ina taea tonutia te tīmata anō i te tipu pūkoro.
I ōrite nga whenua e rua, na reira i kawea aua whakamātautau ōrite ki ngā wāhi e rua i runga i te papa o Mars; Kei te raki kē atu te Kōpae 1 o te ao me te Kārihi 2.
I roto i te mātaitai tātaitai, ko te whakangahorotanga me te whakamararatanga o ngā pūwhiti ā-autōhiko i te puehu me te korohū i waenganui i tētahi ahanoa hauāwhā me te kaitirotiro.
Mō ngā whetū e tūtata ana ki te rererangi o te Milky Way, ā, i roto i ētahi mano ruarua nei o te kotahi mano parse o te Earth, ka ngaro i roto i te rōpū arokite o te auautanga (pūnaha whakaahua) e 1.8 pū nui ia kiroparēke.
Ko te mahi anō, he mea take nā te mārama e marara atu ana i te puehu me ētahi atu take i roto i te mea ā roto.
I te nuinga o ngā tātaritanga pūnaha whakaahua (ngā retata) ka whakamahia pea ki ngā pānuitanga nui o te mārama, te pūkete o te paenga me te hau i waenganui i ngā take teretere.
E kōrero whānui ana, he kaha rawa atu te mou atu i ngā roanga ngaru poto, i kitea nuitia mā te whakamahi i ngā pūkenga mai i te tīpono.
Ka tino nui ake te nui o te ngahoro i tēnei i roto i nga tohutohu tauwhāiti.
Ko te hua, ina whai painga ki te whakaneke ki te whetū raraunga mai i te mea tata nei te tātari, te neke KS rānei) he tino iti iho ngā rerekētanga me te nui o te kepunga, ā, ko ngā ōwehenga ōrite ki R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 me te 0.528±0.015 i kitea e te rārangi takitahi.
I te tuatahi ka kitea tēnei āhuatanga i te tau 1960s, engari kāore tonu tōna take i te mātauria.
I roto i te SMC, ka kitea te tāupenga tino mōrearea kāore he 2175 Å me te kaha rawa atu o te UV i te pae whetū, ā, ko te tino pūnoa o te kōhukihuki ultraviolet e kitea ana i roto i te Paritaha pōtae kē atu.
E kimi ana i ngā kōpikopako kāore e ngaro ana i roto i te LMC me te SMC e ōrite ana ki ērā e kitea ana i te Milky Way, me te kite i ngā kōpiko ngaro i roto i te Milky Way e āhua rite ake ana ki ērā e kitea ana i roto i te LMC2 supershell o te LMC, ā, i te pae SMC, kua puta ake he whakamāramatanga hou.
E toru ngā wae matua o tēnei mate ā-moa: ko te tohanga Rayleigh o ngā rāpoi ngota hau, e horahia ana i nga āhuatanga, me te hauora rāpoi ngota.
Nāna rawa te nui aua mate au te ki te kaititiro o te kaititiro te tata ki te paerangi.
Ko te whārite Drake e tautohe ana mo te putanga o te oranga poipoi ki tētahi atu wāhi o te ao nui.
Kei roto i tēnei te rapu i te oranga ā-tuarongo o nāianei me te tūturu, me tētahi rapunga whāiti ake mō te oranga mātauranga ā-tuatahi.
I roto i ngā tau, ka whakamōhiotia e te kōrero pūtaiao ngā ariā pūtaiao, ka whakaarohia he āhuatanga maha, ā, ka whakaawe i te āro tūmatanui me ngā tirohanga o te ora ā-iwi.
E ai ki tēnei tohenga i hangaia e ngā mātai pūtaiao pērā i a Carl Sagan me Stephen Hawking, tae atu ki ngā āhuatanga mōhio pēnei i te Winston Churchill, e kore e tīari te ora ki tētahi wāhi atu i te Earth.
E ai ki tēnei tohenga, i hangaia e ngā pūtaiao pērā i a Carl Sagan me Stephen Hawking, tae atu ki ngā tikanga mōhio pērā ki a Winston Churchill, e kore e tīari te ora ki tētahi wāhi atu i te Earth.
I ia taumata o te rauropi ka whakaritea he tikanga hei whakakore i te papā, he mahi tahi, me te pupuri i te mahi a te rauropi.
Ko te ora i runga anō i te amonia (ehara i te wai) kua huatau hei whirinoa, ahakoa he iti iho te āhua o tēnei rīpene i te wai.
Tata ki te 95% o te mea ora e hangaia ana ki runga i ngā huanga e ono anake: te waro, te hauwai, te hauota, te hāora, te hāora, te pūwhāwhā.
Kei te ngota waro te kaha motuhake ki te hanga i ngā here matū pakari e whā me ētahi atu ngota, tae atu ki ētahi atu ngota waro.
E ai ki ngā 2015 Astrobiology Strategy o NASA, Ko te oranga o ētahi atu ao tērā pea kei roto i ngā moroiti, ā, ko ngā pūnaha ora matatini i tētahi wāhi kē ka whakatika mai, a, ka whakatūria ki runga i te ora meroiti."
I kī a Rick Colwell, he mema o te tīma e Deep Carbon Observatory no Oregon State University, ki te UK: "E whakaaro ana ahau tērā pea he pai ki te whakaaro he tikanga noa iho te oha o ētahi atu ao whetū me ā rātou marama, engari nā te mea kua kitea e mātou i konei i Earth ka taea e ngā kaiao te mahi mamao atu i te rā mā te whakamahi i te pūngao e hāngai ana mai i ngā toka hōhonu.
Ko te whakaaro panspermia e whakatakoto ana kia pūtake noa iho pea te ora i tētahi atu wāhi o te Solar System.
I te rautau 19th i whakaarahia ano i roto i te ahua hou e te maha o nga kaiputaiao, tae atu ki a Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834), Kelvin (1871), Hermann von Helmholtz (1879), a, i muri mai, na Svante Arrhenius (1903).
I puta mai tētahi o ngā uiui pūtaiao o mua ki te kaupapa i roto i tētahi tuhipānui Scientific American 1878 e huaina ana ko "Kua Noho te Moon?"
Kei roto tonu pea i ngā rohe mahana, taikaha rānei i roto i te ā roto o Moon te wai rewa.
Tērā ētahi whakaaturanga he mahana kē tō Mars, he mea mahana kē i mua: he awa maroke, he pū tōpū hukapapa, he puia, me ngā kohuke e hāngai ana i te aroaro o te wai kua kitea katoatia.
Tērā pea i hangaia te wao e te puia aihi, na te hukapapa rānei e tata ana ki te kōpikopiko mata (e huri ana mai i te mārō ki te korohū).
Tērā anō pea ka āhei te Europa ki te tautoko i te tonotono hāora i hangaia e ngā ihi kōhanga e pā ana ki tōna aihi mata.
I te 11 o Hōngere 2013, ka pūrongotia e NASA te kitenga o "ngā kohuke pūrata uku" (i ētahi wā anō, he mea pāhono ki ngā rauropi pūwaro, i runga i te kirinuku haupapa o Europa.
Ko etahi e kii ana kua kitea e ratou nga taunakitanga e noho ana te oranga moroiti ki Mars.
I te tau kotahi mano, i te tau kotahi mano, i te tau e 1996, i kīa mai he pūrongo tautohe, i kitea ngā hanganga e rite ana ki te nanoteri i roto i te matakōkiri, ALH84001, he toka i tuwhaina mai i te Mars.
Kāore i roa ka whakamataratia e nga kaiwhakahaere NASA a NASA i nga kerēme a nga kaimātai pūtaiao, a, ka ngaro atu a Stoker i ana whakapuakitanga tuatahi.
I hoahoatia hei aromatawai i te nohoanga o Mua, o nāianei ki Mars mā te whakamahi i ngā momo taputapu pūtaiao maha.
Ahakoa rā, e hiahiatia ana ngā huarahi whakahirahira i te āhei ki te kimi me te whakatika i te mārama mai i ngā ao pōhatu iti ake e tata ana ki ā rātou whetū i mua i te whakamahinga o ēnei tikanga whirinoa ki te tātari i ngā ao ātea.
I Ahu 2011, i kitea e NASA, i runga anō i ngā akoranga o ngā kōkiri i kitea i runga i te Earth, huatau ko ngā wae DNA me te RNA (ateine, nanakia me ngā rāpoi ngohengohe pātahi), ka hangaia ngā paraka hangahanga mō te oranga e mōhiotia ana e tātou, i te wāhi ā waho.
I Ahu 2012, i te tuatahi o te ao, i pūrongotia e ngā kaitātai tohunga i te Copenhagen University te kitenga o tētahi rāpoi huka motuhake, i roto i tētahi pūnaha whetū tawhiti.
Kua kitea hoki e te whātata wātea Kepler kia tokoiti mano ngā aorangi kaitono, ā, tata ki te 11% he tōrunga hē pea.
Ko te aorangi tino nui kua whakarārangihia ki te NASA Exoplanet Archive ko te DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, tata ki te 29 ngā wā o te tini o Jupiter, ahakoa i runga i te nuinga o ngā whakamāramatanga o te aorangi, he tino nui rawa hei aorangi, ā, he parauri kē pea.
Ko tētahi tohu kei tētahi aorangi kē pea kei roto ko te oranga, ko te aroaro o tētahi ao whai hāora nui te nui o te hāora, nā te mea he tino āhua whakahohe taua korohū, ā, ko te nuinga o te wā kāore e roa kē me te kore e whakakīkī.
Ahakoa i whakaarohia ko te kotahi anake o ēnei whetū kotahi tekau mā rua, he ao tōna, tērā pea e 6,25 miriona ētahi o ngā pūnaha taohanga e tautoko ora ana i roto i te ao nui e kitea ana.
Kai roto i nga karaipiture tahito o te Jainism te whakapuakitanga tuatahi o te oranga tangata āpitihanga.
I tautokona e ngā kaituhi Muslim o roto tonu pēnei i a Fakhr al-Din al-Razi me Muhamad al-Baqir te whakawhanaketanga ngākau kōhanga i runga i te Qur'an.
I te wā ka mārama, kotahi noa iho te aorangi i waenganui i nga tinana nui rawa i te ao nui, ka tīmata te ariā mo te ora ā-tuatahi hei kaupapa i roto i te iwi pūtaiao.
I noho he taurangi whānui tonu te tūponotanga o nga āpitihanga pūtaiao i te whakateretanga o te kitenga pūtaiao.
Ko te ariā mo te ora i runga i a Mars i ahu mai i te kaituhituhi British H. G. Wells ki te tuhituhi i te pukapuka kōrero The War of the World i te 1897, e kōrero ana i tētahi whakaekenga a nga manene mai i a Mars, i te rere i te whakawāwātanga o te aorangi.
Ka whakahua tonutia te whakapono ki ngā kaioraora i roto i ngā tikanga tumahi tohutohu, ki ngā kaupapa whakatupu, me ngā mātauranga ā-iwi e paingia ana, ehara i te mea Area 51"" me te legends."
Kei te tūwhera a Ward rāua ko Brownlee ki te whakaaro mo te kunenga i runga i ētahi atu aorangi kāore i runga i ngā āhuatanga tino ōrite o Papatūānuku (pēnei i te DNA me te waro).
Mēnā ka toro mai nga kaituanui ki a mātau, ka rite tonu te putanga ki te taunga o Columbus ki America, kāore i pai te huri atu mō te Native Americans, tana kī."
Ka hoatu hoki e COSPAR he tohutohu mo te parenga momo.
Waihoki, i runga anō i te urupare, kāore"he mōhiohio whai tikanga hei huatau kai te hunaia he whakaaturanga i te kanohi o te iwi whānui.""
Runga: Nga pūtake kōmā o nga nui rerekē.
Comet Borrelly, ko ngā tae e whakaatu ana i tōna tīahoaho i runga i te awhe o ngā whakahau e toru nui (matau).
He taupū kōaro te tauine, ā, kua tautuhia kia huri ai ia hipanga o te rarahi i te tīahonga mā tētahi wāhanga o te pūtake tuarima o te 100, tata tonu ki te 2.512 rānei.
E rua ngā tikanga rerekē a ngā kaitākaro mo te rarahi: ko te rarahi me te rahinga pūmau.
Ko te nui pūmau e whakaahua ana i te mōrahi inoke inārō nei i aweretia e tētahi ahanoa, ā, kua whakaritea kia ōrite ki te rarahi kitea e puta ana i te ahanoa mēnā i whakanohoia i tētahi tawhiti mai i te Earth, 10 parsecs mo ngā whetū.
Nā te whanaketanga o te karu wātūtū i kitea he āhua hāmate ēnei rahinga nui —he iti iho te putanga mai o ngā whetū i roto i te karu whakaata.
Ko te tōraro ake o te uara, ko te tīaho ake o te ahanoa.
Ko ngā whetū whai rarahi i waenganui i te 1.5 me te 2.5 e huaina ana ko te rarahi tuarua; e 20 ngā whetū e tiaho ake i te 1.5, he whetū tino nui rawa ēnei (tirohia te rārangi o ngā whetū tino tīaho).
Ko ngā tino rarahi mō ngā ahanoa pūnaha o te kōmaru, he rite tonu te whakahua i runga i te tawhiti o te 1 AU.
Ko te momo hangarau tino ngāwari ko te whanaketanga me te whakamahi i nga utauta taketake.
Nāna i āwhina ki te whakawhanake ake i ngā kaunuku arā atu anō (tae atu ki te mahi ā-ao o tēnei rā) ā, kua whakaaetia te pikinga o tētahi karaehe wātea.
Kei roto i ngā tauira te pikinga o te ariā o te tōtika i runga i te hua o te tangata, me nga whakamātautautanga o te pūmanawa kikorangi.
I hurihia ngā tikanga o te kupu i te omua o te rau tau 20 i te wā ka tīmata ngā kaipūtaiao Pāpori American, i te tīmatanga ki Thorstein Veblen, he whakaaro whakamāori mai i te ariā Tiamana o te Technik ki te hangarau".""
I te 1937, ka tuhituhi te kaitākaro o American Read Bain e kei roto i te hangarau ko ngā utauta katoa, ngā mihini, ngā pūrākau, ngā rākau, ngā taputapu, te whare, te kākahu, te whakawhiti atu i ngā pūrere me ngā pūkenga ka whakaputaina, e whakamahia ai e tātau.""
Ina tata nei, kua tono tangata ngā tohutohu European o te "mahi" ki te whakaroa i te tikanga o te hangarau ki ētahi momo taonga whakatangitangi, pērā ki te mahi a Foucault mō ngā hangarau a ia anō (pūkenga de soi).
ki te waihanga i ngā mea whaitake, ki te whakatika raruraru rānei, me "tētahi mīhini, tētahi utauta, aratuka, aha atu, aha atu,"
He rite tonu te whakamahinga o te kupu ki te tohu i tētahi āpure hangarau tauwhāiti, ki te whakapā atu rānei ki te hangarau tiketike, ki ngā mea hiko pūkoro noa iho, kaua te hangarau hei katoa.
I tēnei whakamahinga, e tohutoro ana te hangarau ki ngā utauta me ngā mihini ka whakamahia pea hei whakatika i ngā raruraru o te ao tūturu.
"W. Brian Arthur ka tautuhia te hangarau ki tētahi āhuatanga whānui anō hei ""he huarahi ki te whakarite i tētahi take tangata."" "
Ina whakakotahitia ki tētahi atu kupu, pēnei i te "hangarau rongoā, "hangarau mokowā", e tohutoro ana rānei ki te āhua o te mātauranga me ngā utauta o te āpure. """
Ko te hangarau hoki te tono pāngarau, te pūtaiao, me ngā toi pūkenga mo te ora, e ai ki tāna e mōhiotia ana.
Ko te pūkaha te tukanga taumata-whāinga o te hoahoa me te hanga i ngā utauta me ngā pūnaha hei pokanoa i ngā tikanga tūturu o te tangata, i te nuinga o te wā (engari kaua i ngā wā katoa) mā te whakamahi i ngā hua me ngā pūkenga mai i te pūtaiao.
Hei tauira, tērā pea ka ako te pūtaiao i te rerenga o ngā irahiko i roto i ngā pūkawe iahiko mā te whakamahi i ngā utauta me te mātauranga kē.
Ko te pānga tūturu i waenganui i te pūtaiao me te hangarau, i whakawhitiwhitia e ngā pūtaiao, ngā kaituhituhi kōrero, me ngā kaiwhakaatu i te tōmuri o te rau tau e 20th, nā te mea ka taea e te taupatupatu te pūtea o te pūtaiao taketake me te pūtaiao hoatu.
Ko te tangata tuatahi i huri mai i te momo whakahāngai i ngā mahi whakahāhi kē, he āhua kotahi tonu te toru o nga tangata o nāianei, e āhua kotahi tonu te toru o nga tangata o nāianei.
Ko te hanganga o ngā toki pōhatu kua whakangārahi, he tino kōkiri i whakaaetia ai te whakawāteatanga ngahere i runga i te tauine nui hai hanga pāmu.
Ko te kaipuke hīkoi te whakamahinga tuatahi o te hiko hau; Ko te rīpene tuatahi o te kaipuke i raro i te rā, ko tētahi poti Nile e whakaae ana ki te kotahi mano e 8th tekau mā whā.
E ai ki nga tohunga whaipara tangata, i hangaia te wira i te takiwa o te 4000 BC pea i te wa kotahi me te tata ki te wa kotahi i Mesopotamia (i Iraq o naianei), the Northern Caucasus (ahuatanga Maykop) me Central Europe.
Inā noa nei, i kitea te wīra rākau i mōhiotia i te ao i roto i nga repo Ljubljana o Slovenia.
I whakamahia e nga Sumerian tahito te wīra a te kaihanga rihi, a, tērā pea i waihangatia.
I pā mai nga kāta wīra tuatahi i te ure, a, i whakamahia tuatahitia i Mesopotamia me Iran i te 3000 o BCE.
I te Palace o Knossos., ka ōrite te waiwai ki ngā mea hou
Ko nga waipuke matua i Rome te Cloaca Maxima; I tīmata te hanganga i runga i te rau tau ono o BCE, a, kai te whakamahia tonutia i tēnei rā.
E Medieval ngā hangarau i kite i te whakamahinga o ngā mīhini ngāwari (pēnei i te kāwhiu, te kōwiri, me te kōwhiu) hei hanga i ngā taonga uaua kē atu, pēnei i te hurihau, i ngā karaka, me tētahi pūnaha o ngā wānanga i whāngai, i whakaputa hoki i ngā whakaaro me ngā mahi pūtaiao.
I te tīmatanga o te United Kingdom o te rau tau 18, he wā whakahura hangarau tino nui te Industrial Revolution, i ngā wāhi ahuwhenua, i ngā wāhi ahuwhenua, i te mahi karihi, i te kari mārō, i te kawenga, i ākiria e te kite i te hiko uaua me te taupānga whānui o te pūnaha wheketere.
Na te pikinga o te hangarau i ārahi ai ki nga whare tītaka me nga wāhi taone whanui e whakawhirinaki ana o rātau tangata ki te mau waka ki te kawe i a rātau me a rātau rawa kai.
Na te rau tau e 20 i mau mai te nui o nga mahi hou.
I muri mai na te hangarau korero i puta ai te whanautanga i nga tau 1980 o te Ipurangi, i puta mai te Information Age o naianei.
E hiahiatia ana ngā hanganga whīwhiwhi me ngā whakahaere hangahanga hei hanga, hei pupuri hoki i ētahi o ngā hangarau hou ake, ā, kua puta ake ngā umanga katoa ki te tautoko me te whakawhanake i ngā whakatipuranga whai painga o ngā utauta matatini ake.
Ko te nuinga o te wā e whakapono ana nga kaiwhiwhita ko te take o te hangarau ko te whakatina i nga ārai, ā, ko te mea e kīia noatia ana e tātau ko te āhuatanga tangata, ko tētahi atu ārai anō e hīkoi atu ana.
E kī ana rātau, ko te hua tē mōhiotia a tēnei iwi, ko te noho hei hangarau mo ake tonu atu i te utu o te wāteatanga me te hauora ā-hinengaro.
E tūmanako ana a ia ki te whakakite i te uho o te hangarau ki tētahi tikanga e 'kore ai tātau e whakaiti i a tātau ki tētahi akiaki huatau ki te pana kāpō me te hangarau, he aha rānei e pā mai ana ki taua mea, ki te whakakeke raruraru ki taua mea.'
E kitea ana ētahi o ngā whakahēnga tino pōhara o te hangarau ki te mea kua whakaarotia ināianei hei tauhira tuhituhi pēnei i te Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, me te George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four
Ko te kaiwhakawānanga ahurea tōmuri O Neil Postman he rōpū utauta e whakawātea ana i ngā rōpū hangarau, i tāna i karangatia ai ko te hikohiko,"" ngā rōpū whakahaere e whakanuia ana e ngā āhuatanga hangarau, pūtaiao hoki ki te aukati i ētahi atu mahi ahurea, ngā uara me ngā tirohanga ā-ao."
Kua tuhituhi anō a Nikolas Kompridis mō ngā mōrearea o te hangarau hou, pēnei i te pūkaha iranga, te matauranga hangarau, te koiora waihanga, me ngā karetao.
Ko tētahi atu kaiwhakawānanga tūtohu o te hangarau ko Hubert Dreyfus, kua whakaputa pukapuka pēnei i Te Ipurangi me te What Computers Still Can't Do.
I roto i tōna tuhinga, ko Jared Bernstein, he Senior Fellow i te Center on Budget me Policy Priorities, he pātai i te ariā whānui o te aunoatanga, me ngā mea nui ake, ngā hua o ngā whakahaere hangarau, kua tino āwhina ki tēnei raruraru mākete mahi e tipu ana.
E rua nga tautohetohe matua hai tiaki i tōna take.
I te pono, ka whakamataratia e aunoatanga ngā mahi auau engari e hiahia tonutia ana ngā mahi whakamutunga rawa, he mea hiahia tonu nā te mea ka whakahōutia e rātou ngā hangarau me ngā tūtira ā-ringa "me whai whakawātea ngāwari me ngā āhuatanga auau" kia noho uaua tonu ki te whakakapi ki ngā mihini.
He tino whāiti rawa te whakaaro o te hangarau; e ai ki a Tihi, Ko te Hangarau he tukanga auaha e whai ana i te hinengaro tangata"."
I ētahi wā e mōhio ana rātau he ngāwari noa iho te whakahaere i te hangarau, ā, me tino pātaitia tēnei whakaaro.
Ko te whakarongoā te ariā e taea ai ia take pāpori te whakaoti i ngā whakawhānuitanga ki te hangarau, me whakawhāiti ake ki te ipurangi.
I kōrerorerotia hoki e Benjamin R. Cohen rāua ko Gwen Ottinger nga pānga maha o te hangarau.
Ko te whakamahinga o te hangarau taketake he āhuatanga anō o ētahi atu momo kararehe i tua atu i te tangata.
I tētahi wā i whakaarotia ko te kaha ki te hanga me te whakamahi i ngā utauta he āhuatanga whakarite o te puku Homo.
I te tau 2005, i kitea ai e te kaihoko o Ray Kurzweil ko te mea nui o te hangarau he īnakinaki te Hurihanga GNR"" o ngā ira, ngā nanongarau me ngā karetao, me ngā karetao e tino hira ana i ngā mea e toru."
Kua mahia kētia e te tangata ētahi o nga hīpae tuatahi kia tutuki ai te hurihanga GNR.
Ko ētahi e whakapono ana ko te wā heke mai o nga karetao ka pā ki tētahi 'nui ake i te mōhiotanga koiora-kore o te tangata.'
He maha ngā ritenga e tiria ana e tēnei āpōpō ki te ariā o te hīanga i whakaritea, engari, e kitea ana te whakatoinga i whakaritea he rautaki pakihi kino".'"
Kua hōparatia hoki nga iranga, me te mātau te tangata ki te pūkaha iranga ki tētahi waeine.
Ko ētahi e whakaaro ana ka whakamahia te pūkaha iranga hai āwhina ake i te tangata, kia āraia rawatia rānei ētahi mate.
E whakaponotia ana e ngā kaihautū e whakaae ana te hangarau nanobot ki te tangata ki te 'rāwekeweke i te mea rāpoi ngota me te tauine karihi.'
I tēnei horopaki, kua taka kē atu ināianei, ko te "mīhini" e pā ana ki tētahi mīhini hōia, i.e., he whakahēnga pūhanga pūkaha e whakamahia ana i te pakanga (hei tauira, he kāpeti).
I mōhiotia nga mīhini māmā tauhira e ono i roto i te Near East o neherā.
I puta tuatahi te huarahi kōwhiti i te 5,000 tau ki mua i te Near East, i reira i whakamahia ai i roto i tētahi tauine whārite māmā, me te nuku ahanoa nui i roto i te hangarau Īhipiana o neherā.
Ko te tāwiri, ko te whakamutunga o nga mīhini ngāwari hei waihanga, i puta tuatahi ki Mehopotamia i te wā o te wā nā Neo-Asiria (911-609) BC.
I te mea ko ia tetahi o nga rangatira o Paraohs, ko Djosèr pea i hoahoa me te tirotiro i te hanganga o Djoser Pyramid (te Pyramid Step) i Saqqara i te tau Egypt i te takiwa o te 2630–2611 BC.
I hangaia e nga tupuna Kushite he speos i te wa parahi i waenganui i te 3700 me te 3250 BC.Bloomeries me nga oumu pupuhi i hangaia i nga rautau 7 BC i Kush.
E hiahiatia ana e ētahi o ngā hanganga Archimedes me te pūhanga Antikythera he mōhiotanga mātauranga mō ngā āhuatanga whakangākau pārōnaki, whakawaiwai rānei, e rua ngā tikanga matua i roto i te kaupapa mīhini, ā, ka āwhina ki te hanga i ngā akoranga kaka o te Industrial Revolution, ā, kei te nui tonu te whakamahia i tēnei rā i ngā āpure rerekē pēnei i ngā pūkaha karetao me ngā pūkaha waka.
Ko te wīra takahuri hoki he whakahau mo te kaiaka takahuri, he whanaketanga matua i te wā o te timatanga o Industrial Revolution i te rau tau 18.
I whakaahuatia e ia e whā nga kaipūoro automaton, tae atu ki ngā pūrei tohutohu e whakahaeretia ana e tētahi mīhini pahū ka taea te whakatangi i ngā pūrei rerekē me ngā tauira pahū rerekē.
I tua atu i ēnei whakaaro mahi, kāore nga mākete i whakapono he tino whai tikanga mō te hangarau.
He mahi hira te whare pūkaha i nga wā o mua o Te Industrial Revolution.
He kaipūkaha pūkaha māia hoki a ia, a, he kaiahāhunga nui.
I whakapai ake anō hoki a Smeaton ki te mīhini uaua o Newcomen.
Ko Samuel Morland, he kaimahi matea, he kaihanga, e mahi ana i ngā mapu, ka mahue ngā tuhipoka i te Tari Vaxual Ordinance i runga i tētahi hoahoa mapu waiwai i pānuitia e Tomas Savery.
Kāore i mōhiotia e te kaihokohoko rino ko Thomas Newcomen, nāna i hanga te pūkaha uaua pākehā tuatahi i roto i 1712, he whakaakoranga pūtaiao.
Na ēnei huahuatanga i whakahekea te utu o te rino, ma te mahi i nga rerewhenua hoiho me nga araturu rino.
Na te whanaketanga o te mīhini uaua pēhanga tiketike, ka taea te kaha ki te taumaha o ngā pūkaha waewae te kaha o ngā waka hiko me ngā oko.
I hangaia e te Hurihanga Mahi he tono mīhini me ngā wāhanga konganuku, nāna i ārahi ki te whanaketanga o ētahi utauta mihini.
I hangaia nga pūkenga makini pū tino hāngai i te hāwhe tuatahi o te rau tau 19.
I whakarārangitia e te tatauranga o Amerika o 1850 te mahi a "raweke i te wā tuatahi me te tatau 2,000."
I 1890, e 6,000 nga kaipūkaha i roto i te mahi pūtea, i te karihi, i te pūkaha me te hiko.
I roto i ngā tūāhuhu o te pūkaha hiko i te tau kotahi mano 1800, ko ngā whakamātautau a Alessandro Volta, o Michael Faraday, ko Georg Ohm me ētahi atu me te hangahanga o te waea hiko i te tau kotahi mano 1816 me te mīhini hiko i te tau 1872
Ko te pūkaha rererangi e pā ana ki te hoahoa tukanga hoahoa rererangi me te mea he wa hou ake te pūkaha waka rererangi e whakawhānui ana i te toro o te whakatinana mā te whakauru i te hoahoa waka rererangi.
Ko te kōrero mātauranga, ko te pūkaha o te moana, me te pūkaha karihi, he manga nui.
Na, he tokomaha nga kaipūkaha e haere tonu ana ki te ako i nga rawa hou puta noa i a rātau māngai.
He iti rawa te nuinga o te hanga i tētahi hua momoho, engari, me tutuki hoki ētahi atu whakaritenga.
Genrich Altshuller, i muri i te kohikohi tatauranga i runga i te nui o ngā whakamana, i huatau ko ngā tautohe kai te ngākau o ngā hoahoa pūkaha "iti, ā, i te taumata tiketike ake, ko te taumata pai rawa tētahi ka whakakore i te whakahēnga uho i takea ai te raruraru."
Mā te whakamātau e whakarite ka mahia ngā hua ki tāu e tūmanakohia ana.
Tae atu ki te pūmanawa taupānga pakihi noa iho, he maha ngā taupānga āwhina rorohiko (ngā hangarau āwhina rorohiko) mō te pūkaha.
Ka taea e ngā kaipūkaha te waihanga tauira ahu-3, ngā tātuhi Ahu-2, me ngā aronuinga o ā rātou hoahoa.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka whakaritea te āheitanga me te tuaritanga o ēnei mōhiohio katoa me te whakamahi i te pūmanawa whakahaere raraunga hua.
Na tōna tino pūkaha āhua, he hononga tūhonoa ki te iwi, ki te ahurea me te whanonga tangata.
Tērā pea ka pā ki te tautohetohe nga kaupapa pūkaha.
He pūkaha kī te pūkaha o te whakahaere hou me te whanaketanga tangata.
He maha nga take o te ohaoha, o nga take tōrangapū ka puta i tēnei, tae atu ki ngā take tika.
Me whakaoti anō pea e ngā kaipūtaiao ngā tūmahi pūkaha, pēnei i te hoahoa i ngā taputapu whakamātautau, te hanga taketake rānei.
Tuatahi, e pā ana ki ngā wāhi e mātau ana te mātauranga o te ahupūnga taketake, o te matuhi rānei, engari he matatini rawa ngā raruraru ki te whakaoti i runga i te āhua tūturu.
Ka taurite te tuatahi ki te māramatanga ki tētahi mātāpono pāngarau i te wā e whakararangi ana ngā taurangi ine whakamutunga me te waihanga hangarau.
Ko te tikanga ka hiahiatia e te kaiahiaho he whakaakoranga tāpiri, e hāngai ana hoki.
Ko tētahi tauira o tēnei ko te whakamahinga o ngā tātai ā-tau ki ngā whārite Navier–Stokes hei whakaahua i te rerenga rererangi ki runga i te rererangi, te whakamahinga rānei o te aratuka huānga Fini ki te tatau i ngā uaua ki ngā wae matatini.
Ko nga kaipūkaha i te hanga hou me te hangahanga.
Nā te mea me whai tūturu, taumahinga hoki te hoahoa, me noho tōna āhuahanga, ngā ahu, me ngā raraunga āhuatanga kua tautuhia.
Koia rātau i ako ai i te pāngarau, te ahupūngao, te matuhi, te koiora me nga kaiaka mīhini.
Ka taea e te rongoā o nāianei te whakakapi i ētahi o ngā taumahi o te tinana mā te whakamahi i nga okana ahuwhenua, ā, ka taea te whakarerekē i te taumahi o te tinana tangata mā ngā pūrere tinihanga pēnei i te pēnei, hei tauira, te whakatū i te roro me ngā kaitatau.
Ka tuku rongoā ngā āpure e rua ki ngā raruraru tūturu o te ao.
Ko te "whakahaeretanga pūkaha, te "Pūkaha Whakahaere" rānei" tētahi āpure motuhake o te whakahaere e pā ana ki te mahi pūkaha, te wāhanga rānei o te umanga pūkaha."
Ko ngā kaipūkaha e hāngai ana ki te whakahaere huringa me tino mōhio hohonu ki te taupānga o ngā tikanga me ngā tikanga o te hinengaro mahi, o te whakahaere.
Ko te mōhiohio kaihanga (AI) he mōhiohio e whakaaturia ana e ngā mīhini, e ai ki te mōhiohio māori e whakaaturia ana e te tangata, e te kararehe rānei.
Kua whakamātauria e te rangahau AI, ā, kua turakina ngā tohu maha i roto i tōna roanga, tae atu ki te whakatūtū i te roro, te whakatauira i te raruraru o te tangata, te arorau whai tikanga, ngā pātengi raraunga nui o te mātauranga me te pakoire i te whanonga kararehe.
Ko ngā whāinga tūturu o te rangahau AI ko te whakaaro, te mātauranga, te hoahoa, te akoranga, te tukatuka reo maori, te whakaaro me te kaha ki te nuku me te whānako ahanoa.
Ka tātuhia hoki e AI te pūtaiao rorohiko, te mātau hinengaro, ngā hinengaro, te whakaaro hinengaro, me ētahi atu āpure maha.
I tīmataria te whakaaro "mātauranga pūkaha, "whai tikanga" rānei" ki ngā tohutohu me ngā kaiako o te take o mua."
Na te tuhinga a te Hahi-Turing i kitea i roto i te pūtaiao, te ariā mōhiohio me ngā tūtei pārekareka, nā tēnei kaitirotiro i āta whakaaro ai te hanga i tētahi roro hiko.
Ko ngā kaitāri a Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), Marvin Minsky (MIT) me Arthur Samuel (IBM) ka noho ko ngā kaiwhakaū me ngā kaiārahi rangahau AI.
I whakaaro ngā kaiwhakaū o AI mo te wā heke mai: i matapae a Herbert Simon Ka taea e ngā mīhini, i roto i te rua tekau tau, te mahi i ngā mahi katoa e taea e te tangata"."."
I puhoi te ahunga whakamua, a, i te tau 1974, hei whakautu i nga whakahē a Sir James Lighthill me te akiaki tonu mai i te US Congress ki te utu i nga kaupapa whai hua ake, ko te U.S. me nga kawanatanga a British i whakakorehia te rangahau tuhura i AI.
I te 1985, kotahi tekau tāra te eke o te mākete mo AI.
Ka tere ake ngā rorohiko, ngā whakapainga hātepe, me te āheitanga ki ngā raraunga nui rawa ka whakahohetia te haere whakamua i roto i te ako mīhini me te whakaaro; I tīmata ngā aratuka ako hōhonu hiakai-raraunga ki te whārahi ake i ngā tohu tika huri noa i te 2012.
I whakawehea ngā rangahau AI ki ngā āpure-roto taumata, ā, i rite tonu te kore kōrero ki a rātou anō.
I whakawaengatia te rangahau ki roto ki nga rōpū e toru: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford, me TE MIT, ā, pērā i whakaahuatia ki raro nei, ka whāngaia e ia tētahi tōna ake kāhua rangahau.
He maha nga ingoa i karangatia e rātau a rātau mahi: hei tauira, i tāpuia, i te tūnga, i runga i te whanonga, i te whanaketanga rānei.
I whakaaetia e te reo pāngarau tiritahi tētahi taumata ngātahitanga tiketike me ētahi atu āpure kua tautuhia (pēnei i te pāngarau, te ohaoha, te rangahau mahinga rānei).
I ēnei rā, he uaua te ine nui o ngā kitenga whakamātautau, ā, i ētahi wā (kua uaua) te whakawātea.
I kitea he iti rawa ēnei hātepe mō te whakaoti i ngā raruraru whakaaro nui nā te mea i pā mai tētahi pahutanga"ki te paenga paheko": ka pōturi ake rātou i te nui o ngā raruraru."
I waenganui i ngā mea kei roto ko te turanga mātauranga whānui ko: ngā ahanoa, ngā āhuatanga, ngā kāwai me ngā pānga i waenga i ngā ahanoa; āhuatanga, takahanga, ngā tūnga me te wā; ngā take me ngā pānga; mōhio ki te mātauranga (e mōhio ana tātau ki nga mea e mohiotia ana e ētahi atu tangata); me te maha atu, he iti iho nga rohe rangahau.
Hei tauira, mēnā ka puta ake he manu ki te kōrerorero, ko te tikanga kia whakaahuatia e te tangata tētahi kararehe iti me te rere ka waiata me te rere.
He kore noa iho he mea pono, he hē rānei ki te āhua e hiahiatia ana e te arorau whakawaitara.
E hiahiatia ana ngā kaupapa rangahau e ngana ana ki te hanga i tētahi tino mōhiotanga o te mātauranga ā-kaupapa nui (hei tauira, Kikī) i te nui o te pūkaha arotau mahi - me hanga ma te ringa, kotahi te ariā uaua i te wā kotahi.
E hiahia ana rātou ki tētahi ara e kitea ai te wā heke—he whakaaturanga o te āhua o te ao, ā, ka taea te mahi matapae he pēhea e hurihia ai e ā rātou mahi- me te mahi kōwhiringa e whakamōrahi ana i te taputapu (uara") rānei o ngā kōwhiringa e wātea ana."
Mā tēnei waea mō tētahi māngai kāore e taea te aromatawai noa i tōna taiao me te mahi matapae engari ka arotake hoki i ōna matapae me te urutau i runga anō i tana aromatawai.
Ka whakamahia te taunahatanga hei whakatau he aha te kāwai o tētahi mea kei roto, ā, ka taka i muri i te kitenga o tētahi papatono i ngā tauira maha o ngā mea mai i ngā kāwai maha.
Ka taea e te ariā ako ā-rorohiko te aromatawai i ngā kaiako mā te uauatanga ā-rorohiko, mā te tauira matatinitanga (pēhea te nui o te raraunga e hiahiatia ana), mā ētahi atu whakaaro rānei o te arotautanga.
He maha ngā tohu o nāianei e whakamahi ana i ngā auau takanga-tahi kupu hei hanga i ngā whakaaturanga kupu. "
Ka taea e ngā tohu NLP tatauranga hōu te whakakotahi i ēnei rautaki katoa me ētahi atu, ā, ka tika te tika i te whārangi, i te taumata kōwae rānei.
Mā te robot pūkoro hōu, ina tuku i tētahi taiao iti, pateko, kitea hoki, ka māmā te kite i tōna tauwāhi me te mahere i tōna taiao; heoi anō, ko ngā taiao hihiri, pēnei i te (endoscopy) i roto i te tinana hāhā o te tūroro, ka nui ake te wero.
Hei tauira, kua whakaritea ētahi kaiāwhina mariko ki te kōrerorero, hei whakawaiwai rānei; mā tēnei ka āhua tairongo kē atu rātou ki te tauwhitinga ā-ā-waha o te tauwhitinga tangata, ki te whakangāwari rānei i te tauwhitinga o te tangata-rorohiko.
Ka taea te whakaahua i te whanonga mātauranga mā te whakamahi i ngā tikanga māmā, huatau (pēnei i te arotautanga, te arotautanga rānei)?
Kei te whakamahi rānei mātou i ngā hātepe e tuku noa iho ana i a tātou he rongoā tika"" (hei tauira, ngā tikanga pāpāhotanga) engari ka pāngia pea ki ēnei momo hapa kāore e taea e te tāngata?"
E mātaki ana a Kanuatistuart Russell rāua ko Peter Norvig, ko te nuinga o ngā kaiwhaiwhai AI kaua e māharahara ki te whakaaro tūturu AI kaha — ahakoa pai te mahi a te papatono, kāore rāua e māharahara mēnā ka kīia e koe he whakakitenga mōhiotanga, mōhio tūturu rānei.""
Nā tēnei ka taea e te mōhio hou te whakanui ake i te nuinga o te wā, ā, ka tino nui kē atu i te tangata.
He uaua te hononga i waenga i te automation me te mahi.
"He rerekē te whakatau tata o te kaupapa o te mōrea; Hei tauira, Ko Michael Osborne me Carl Benedikt Frey e kii ana ko te 47% o nga mahi a te US kei te ""he tupono nui"" mo te mahi aunoatanga, i te wā e whakarōpū ana tētahi pūrongo OECDi te 9% anake o ngā tūtira U.S. hei ""mōrea nui""."
I te wā roa, kua tonoa e ngā kaipūtaiao kia haere tonu te taumahi arotau me te whakamōkito i ngā mōrea haumarutanga ka tae mai me ngā hangarau hōu.
I roto i tana pukapuka Hei mahi whakaharahara, ka hoatu e te kaipōpoto, a Nick Bostrom, he tautohe, ma te mōhio tangata e whakararuraru te mōhiotanga o te tangata.
Bostrom e whakahua ana hoki i te uauatanga o te whakahaere katoa i ngā uara o te tangata ki tētahi AI arā atu anō.
I roto i tana pukapuka Human Compatible, ko te kairangahau AI a Stuart J. Russell e whakaatu ana i etahi o nga awangawanga a Bostrom. i te tono hoki i tētahi āhuatanga ki te whakawhanake i ngā mīhini whai hua, i arotahi ki te tūtohu me te whakarākeitanga ki te tangata, tērā pea kei roto ko ngā akoranga whakahau kōaro.
Kua whāranu te whakaaro o nga tohunga i roto i te papa o te mōhio tuhituhi, he hautanga nui rawa e pāngia ana, e kore e mōrearea mai i te AI tino kaha.
E whakapono ana a Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg ko AI ka " iriti i te nui o nga mea pai, " penei i te rongoa i nga mate me te whakanui ake i te haumaru o nga motuka motuhake.
Ko ngā kamupene pūtea hoki e pūtea ana e ngā kamupene e hanga ana i te mōhio āhua tangata, pērā i te DeepMind me te Vicarious ki me titiro tonu ki ngā mea e haere ana me te mōhiotanga tangata."
Kei roto hoki i ngā kōrero ngā rangahau i tēnei wāhi ko ngā tikanga mīhini, ngā māngai pūkenga ahuwhai, te AI rata me te kōrero ki te hanga i tētahi anga motika tangata.
Kua tae mai te wā hei tāpiri i tētahi ahu matatika ki ētahi mihini i te iti rawa.
Ko te rangahau i roto i ngā tikanga mīhini he kī ki te whakakore i ngā māharaharatanga ki ngā pūnaha motuhake - ka tautohetia pea ko te ariā o ngā mihini motuhake me te kore pērā te ahu kei te take o te wehi katoa mō te mōhiohio mīhini.
Me kaua te tangata e whakaaro he mīhini, he mīhini rānei, he mīhini mātēra rānei, nā te mea kāore he take tōmua e whakapono ai ka arotahi rātou ki tā tātou pūnaha whanonga, nāna i āhua tahi me tā tātau koiora (kāore e tiritiritia e te AIs).
Kotahi te marohi hei whakahaere i tēnei, ko te whakarite ko te AI mōhio tuatahi ko te 'Friendly AI' ā, ā, ka taea te whakahaere i ngā AIs kua tupu ā muri ake.
"Ki taku whakaaro e take ana te māharahara i tētahi hapa take nui i te kore e wehewehe i te rerekētanga i waenganui i ngā huarahi tino hōu nei i tētahi aronga o AI me te whānuitanga me te whiwhinga o te hanga i ngā mōhiohio whakariterite tuku."""
E whakaarotia ana he tikanga mō te whakahauhau i te AI me te whakahaere i ngā mōrearea pāhono.
I timata te roopu rongonui o enei mahi ki a Mary Shelley's Frankenstein,ki te wāhi e noho ai te hanganga tangata hai tuma ki ōna rangatira.
I whakamōhiotia e "Isaac Asimov nga Ture e Toru o ngā Karetao i roto i nga pukapuka me ngā pūrākau maha, i te nuinga o te rangatū o te ""Multivac"" mō tētahi rorohiko tino mōhio i runga i taua ingoa kotahi."
"I te tekau tau atu i 1980, ka peitahia te raupapa Sexy Robots a Hajime Sorayama ka whakaputaina ki Hapani e whakaatu ana i te ahua o te tangata kaiao me nga hiako konganuku uaua me te whai muri mai i te pukapuka ""The Gynoids"" i whakamahia e nga kaihanga kiriata a George Lucas me etahi atu mahi auaha."
Ko te hangarau koiora he horahanga whānui o te koiora, e whai ana i te whakamahinga o ngā pūnaha ora me ngā rauropi ki te hanga hua rānei.
Ka tautuhia e te American Chemical Society te hangarau koiora hei taupānga o ngā rauropi koiora, ngā pūnaha, ngā tukanga rānei a ngā mahi rauropi ki te ako mō te pūtaiao o te ora me te whakapai ake i te uara o ngā rauemi me ngā kaiora pēnei i ngā rongoā, ngā huawhenua, me ngā kararehe.
Ko te pūtau ko te taupānga o ngā tikanga o te pūkaha me ngā pūtaiao maori ki ngā pūtau, pūtau me ngā rāpoi ngota.
I roto i te hangarau o mua, ka tīpako nga kaiahuwhenua tuatahi, ka whakatōpū i nga hua tino pai rawa atu, kia rawaka ai te kai hai tautoko i te tokomaha e tipu ana.
I whakaurua hoki ēnei tukanga ki te moītanga o te pia.
I tēnei tukanga, ka pakaru nga warawaiwai i roto i nga pata waipiro, pēnei i te waihā ewaro.
Ahakoa kāore i tino mārama te tukanga moītanga tae noa atu ki te mahi a Louis Pasteur i te 1857, koia tonu te whakamahinga tuatahi o te hangarau koiora hei tahuri i tētahi pūtake kai ki tētahi atu puka.
I āwhina ēnei pūkete ki te ariā o Darwin ki te whiringa māori.
I te tau kotahi mano 1928, ka kitea e te Alexander Fleming te pū Penicillium waihanga.
Ko te MOSFET (whakawhitiwhiti-a-waa-whakawhitinga-whakawhitinga-a-raera) I waihangatia eWhiri M. Atalla me Dawon Jahng i te tau kotahi mano e iwa rau e 1959.
Ko te BioFET tuatahi ko te whakawhitinga pānga-tairongo-āpure (ISFET), i waihangatia e Piet Bergveld i te tau kotahi o te 1970.
I te waenganui o nga tau 1980, kua whakawhanakehia etahi atu BioFET, tae atu ki te FET pūoko hau (GASFET), pūoko pehanga FET (PRESSFET), transistor pānga-matū (ChemFET), tohutoro ISFET (REFET), FET-whakarereke i te enzyme (ENFET) me te FET (IMFET).
Ko te pikinga o ngā hiahia mō ngā pūngao rawe mō ngā pūngāwhā pūtea ihirangi, ka taea te whakaiti i te whakapaunga hinu-hinu a U.S. tae atu ki te 30% mā te 2030.
TCE: Te Kaipūkaha Matū, (816), 26–31.
Ko tētahi tauira anō ko te hanga o ngā tipu rārangitanga kia tipu i raro i ngā taiao motuhake i te aroaro (ngaro rānei) o ngā matū.
I tētahi atu wā, ko ētahi o ngā whakamahinga hangarauropi kākāriki e pā ana ki ngā maiorooro hei horoi me te whakaiti i te para.
Tae atu ki te whanaketanga o ngā taiaki, pūtau tātā, ārai whāiti, te siRNA me ngā whakamātau tātaritanga.
Ko tētahi taupānga ko te hanganga o ngā kākano whakarei e ātete ana i ngā āhuatanga taiao tino hōhā o ngā rohe taumaha, e pātahi ana ki te hanganga o ngā pūkenga ahuwhenua me te whakahaere rauemi.
Ko te take o ngā tohumanakore he whakawhānui i ngā tikanga whakahau ki te arotau i ngā rongoā, ki te momoira o nga tūroro, kia tino mōrahi ai ngā pānga kino.
Ka taea te whakamahi te hanga hangarau hōu kia ngāwari, kia ngāwari hoki te waihanga i ngā rongoā tīariari.
Mā te whakamātau iranga e taea ai te tātari iranga o ngā whakararutanga ki te tuku i ngā mate, ā, ka taea hoki te whakamahi hei whakatau i ngā mātua o te tamaiti (whaea iranga me te pāpā) i te ahuwhānui rānei i ngā tupuna o te tangata.
Ko te nuinga o te wā, ka whakamahia te whakamātau hei kimi i ngā huringa e pāhono ana ki ngā raruraru tuku iho.
Ka taea e nga kamuhanga hangarau te tohutohu ki te haumarutanga kai ā muri ake mā te whakapiki i ngā kai me te kaha o te ahuwhenua taone.
10% o ngā whenua hauhake o te ao i whakatōia ki te hua GM i te tau 2010.
Kua whakaaetia e ēnei pūkenga hei whakataki i ngā āhuatanga poro hōu me tētahi mana nui ake hoki ki runga i te hanga iranga o te kai i tua atu i ngā tikanga pēnei i te tāuri tīpako me te momo irakati.
Kua hangaia ēnei mō te parenga ki ngā patomate me ngā kaituku hārau me ngā kōtaha nuinga nuka pai ake.
Ahakoa rā, he iti iho te kaha o nga mema o te iwi whānui i te pūtaiao ki te kite kai GM he haumaru.
Heoi anō, kua whakaritea e ngā hoariri ki ngā hua whanau GM i runga i ngā whāinga maha, tae atu ki ngā māharahara taiao, mēnā kei te haumaru te kai i hangā mai i ngā hua GM, mēnā e hiahiatia ana ngā kai GM hei whakahaere i ngā hiahia kai o te ao, me ngā āwangawanga ohaoha e herea ana e ēnei mea ora te ture ā-hinengaro.
He rerekētanga kei roto i te whakaritenga o ngā GMO i waenganui i ngā whenua, me ētahi o ngā rerekētanga tino tohua e puta ana i waenganui i a US me Europe.
Ko ngā wehenga European Union i waenga i te whakaaetanga mō te mahinga i roto i te EU me te whakaaetanga mō te kawemai me te tukanga.
Ko te nuinga o te wā e rima tau te utunga o ia tono momoho, me whakahōu tauwhāinga.
Ko te tāruatanga ko te tukanga o te hanga i ia rauropi, ahakoa he ōrite, ahakoa he ōrite rānei te DNA, mā te tikanga māhorahora, ma te waihanga rānei.
Ka whakamahia i roto i ngā huānga whānui o ngā whakamātauranga koiora me ngā taupānga ā-ringa e tata ana mai i te tapukara iranga ki te whakaputa pūmua tauine nui.
I te tuatahi, me wehe te DNA o te huamoni hei homai i tētahi wāhanga DNA e tika ana te rahi.
Ka whakawhitia ki roto ki ngā pūtau te hāngaitanga e whai ana i te rarangi whakaroto me te kōkuhu huamoni.
Ko tētahi āhuatanga kikokiko kino e whakamahia ana hei tārua i ngā raina pūtau motuhake, ko te whakamahinga o ngā mowhiti tārua (porotakaroa).
E kiia ana hoki tēnei tukanga ko "te tākainga rangahau, "te whakaruruhau rānei"."
Ka tutuki te tārua rongoā mā te hanga pūtau tāpoi rītini i runga i ngā tūmanako mo te whiu i ngā mate pēnei i te mate huka me te pārekarū.
Ko te take i whakamahia ai te SCNT mō te tāruatanga, he ngāwari noa iho te whiwhi, te tikanga rānei o ngā pūtau tāwhara i te taiwhanga.
Ka urupare te ihu ki te karihi pūtau tōpū, pēnei tonu te karihi o te pūtau tātea.
Ka taea te whakamahi ināianei tonu, te rokiroki rānei i ngā pūtau tōpū ki te taiwhanga mō muri ake nei.
Ma tēnei e waihanga tētahi kunene pūtau kotahi.
Kātahi ka whakatakotoria ngā huaketo i runga i nga kaiwhiwhi whakakapi, pēnei i te kau, i te hipi rānei i te take o nga kararehe pāmu.
Ko tētahi atu takuhe ko SCNT e kitea ana he rongoā ki te tārua i ngā momo kua mōreareatia kei te āhua korehāhā.
Tokotoru anake o ēnei hua i ora tae noa ki te whānautanga, kotahi anake i ora ki te pakeketanga.
Heoi anō, na te tau e 2014 ngā kairangahau e pūrongotia ana ngā utu angitu o te whitu ki te waru mai i te tekau, i te tau 2016, i pūrongotia he a Korean Company Sooam Biotech kia puta mai he 500 ngā huakene kōrua i ia rā.
He tītohunga tūturu te whakaputa ā-tōkeke i roto i te maha o ngā momo, tae atu ki te nuinga o nga tipu me ētahi ngāraratanga.
He tauira, ko ētahi o nga kāri karepe o European e tohu ana i nga kāri, neke atu i te rua tekau tau tekau mā rua tau.
He maha nga rākau, he rakau, he aka, he tā me ētahi atu kāwai tūturu, he māhorahora te hanga kākano.
I roto i ngā tipu, ko te kanorau he whanaketanga o te kikino mai i tētahi pūtau huaki kāore anō kia whānuitia, a, he tukanga wae o te hīnoke.
Kaore e ōrite ana aua kānarenga i te mea kei roto pea i nga pūtau tūturu he irakētanga i roto i tō rātou DNA karihi.
Ko te kikiri o te tangata whenua, o te kikiri rānei, ko tētahi āhuatanga e waihanga ana i ngā māhanga tōtahi mai i te kiki, kāore e āta whakaarotia i runga i te āhua kotahi me ērā atu tikanga o te whakatārua.
Na te mau i te pūtau me te kōkuhu ki roto i te kotahi hipi, i waihangatia ai te Dolly's embryo.
I whakakaohia ia i te Roslin Institute in Scotland e nga kaiputaiao British a Sir Ian Wilmut me Keith Campbell, a, i noho ia ki reira mai i tona whanautanga i te tau 1996 tae noa ki tona matenga i te tau 2003 i te ono o ona tau.
He mea nui noa iho te āhua o Dolly nā te mea i whakaaturia e te mahi tērā rawa iranga mai i tētahi pūtau pakeke motuhake, i hoahoatia hei whakaatu i tētahi huinga roto motuhake anake o tōna tīmaero, ka taea te hoahoa anō hei tipu i tētahi mea āhua hou katoa.
Ko te tino tere o te tākaka whāngote tuatahi (nāna i mōhio ai a Ingoa hipi) i angitu ai e 29 ngā hīki, e 277 ngā hēki i whākia, nāna i whakaputa kia toru reme i te whanautanga, ko tētahi o ēnei i ora.
Ahakoa he poroka nga kurukuru tuatahi, kāore anō kia hangaia he poroka tārua pakeke mai i tētahi pūtau kaituku karihi pakeke uaua.
Ahakoa rā, ko ētahi atu kaitākaro, tae atu ki a Ēnei Wilmut who i ārahi i te tīma i tārua tika ai a Mekerangi, e tautohe ana Dolly nā te whakapokenga romahā kāore i te hāngai ki ngā raruraru o te tukanga whakaruruhau.
"Ko nga kaiputaiao Soviet a Chaylakhyan, Veprencev, Sviridova, me Nikitin te kiore ""Masha"" kua kati."
He āhua anō ki te hanganga mahanga.
Dog: Ko Snuppy, ko tētahi whāwhai Tāne Pūkeihi te kurī tāruru tuatahi (2005).
Parāoa wai: Ko Samrupa te pārera wai tārure tuatahi.
Kamera: (2009) ko Injaz, ko te kamera koroua tuatahi.
Koati: (2001) Scientist o Northwest A&F University i angitu te wete i te koati tuatahi ma te whakamahi i te pukoro wahine pakeke.
I whakahaeretia i Haina i te 2017, ā, i pūrongotia i te Hānuere 2018.
Black-footed ferret: (2020) I te tau 2020, na te roopu kaiputaiao i tarai i tetahi wahine ko Willa te ingoa, i mate i waenganui o nga tau 1980 karekau he uri ora i mahue.
Kaore e pā ana ki te pūāhuatanga māori me te tukunga mai o nga māhanga ōrite.
Nō tēnei wā, kaore he whakaaro o nga kaipūtaiao ki te whakakōrua i nga tāngata, ā, e whakapono ana rātau ko ō rātou hua me tīmata he matapaki whānui ake mo ngā ture me ngā tikanga e hiahiatia ana e te ao ki te whakarite i te whakarurutanga.
Ahakoa he maha ēnei whakaaro he whakapono i runga i te take, kai te anga atu hoki nga pātai na te tāruatanga ki nga tirohanga o te ao.
He māharahara tonu nga hoariri o te pokarua kāore anō kia tino pai te hangarau kia haumaru ai, ā, tērā pea ka whakararurarutia (tae atu ki te whakatupuranga o te tangata ka hauhaketia ngā whānau me ngā whānau i te whānau, i te hunga nui hoki.
E kīia ana hoki tēnei he "Tāruatanga Atawhai."
Nā ēnei angitu i whakarato te tūmanako kia whakamahia pea ētahi pūkenga ōrite (mā te whakamahi i ngā whaea whakakapi o tētahi atu momo) ki te tārua i te momo korehāhā.
I te tau 2002, i pānuitia e ngā tangata iranga i te Whare Pupuri Taonga o Ahitereiria kua tāruahia e rātau te DNA o te taika tāwhana (taika Tasmanian), i te wā e korehāhā ana mo te 65 tau mā te tauhohenga mekameka waerau.
I te tau 2003, mo te wā tuatahi, he kararehe korehāhā, i tāruatia te ibex Pyrenean i runga ake nei, i te Pokapū Hangarau Kai me te Rangahau o Aragona, mā te whakamahi i te karihi pūtau wera kua tiakina o ngā tātauira kiri mai i te 2001 me ngā pūtau kōhua koati kōtahi.
"""Когда вернутся мамонты"" ("Ka hoki mai nga Mammoths""), 5 Hui-tanguru 2015 (i tikina i te 6 o Hepetema 2015) Ko tetahi atu raruraru ko te oranga o te mammoth kua oti te hanga: ka whakawhirinaki nga ruminants ki te symbiosis me nga microbiota motuhake i roto i to ratau puku. nakunaku."
Na konei ētahi i whakaaro ai he hohoro kē atu tōna pakeke i ētahi atu kararehe tūturu, i a ia e mate wawe ana mo te hipi i te ono o ona tau.
Heoi anō, ka nui ake te mate o te hapūtanga me ngā ngaronga pāpāho ki te whakaruru i te ngākau i te pūteatanga tūturu, i te tāruatanga āwhina rānei (IVF).
Ko te ariā o te whakakōrua, otirā ko te tāruatanga o te tangata, he maha nga momo mahi kōrero pūtaiao.
He nui nga mahi e whakaatu ana i te hanganga koiora o te tangata mā tētahi tikanga whakatupu pūtau mai i tētahi tīpako kiko, DNA rānei; He tere tonu pea te tāruaruatanga, ka tupu rānei i roto i te whakatupu pōturitanga o te kiki tangata i roto i nga kopu tinihanga.
Ko ngā pikitia kōrero pūtaiao pērā i te The Matrix and Star Wars: Episode II – He whakaaturanga tā te whakaekenga o nga ngā kōhungahunga tangata e ahurea ana i runga i tētahi tauine mahi i roto i ngā pūhihi pūkaha.
I whakaritea tētahi Tau e Caryl Churchill mō te pouaka whakaata, i tētahi whakanao tahi i waenganui i ngā Kiriata BBC me HBO.
I nga wā katoa ka tipu pōrangi a ia mo te aroha o tōna whaea, kaore i rite ki a ia, a, i te iwa tau ki mua, ka mate.
I te pukapuka o te tau 1976, e kōrero ana a Ira Levin, The Boys from Brazil me tōna urutaunga kiriata o te tau 1978, ka whakamahia e Josef Pirihi hei waihanga i ngā tārua o Adolf Hitler.
I roto i te Tākuta Nāna tētahi tauomaoma kaituarangi kākahu pūmau, he tangata āhua whawhai i tapaina ki a Sontarans i roto i te rangatū o te tau1973 "The Time Warrior."
I tirohia anōtia te ariā o nga hōia tāruru mo te riri i roto i Te Tamahine a te Tākuta"" (2008), ina whakamahia te DNA a te Tākuta hei waihanga i tētahi toa wahine ko Jenny."
Ko te 2005 Kazuo Ishiguro pūrākau Never Let Me Go and te 2010 te urutaunga kiriata kei roto i te hitori rereke i hangaia ai nga tangata kua kati mo te kaupapa kotahi ki te tuku koha okana ki nga tangata whanau maori, ahakoa te mea he tino ngakau me te mohio ki a ia ano.
I roto i te pukapuka ā whare rangatira o Cloud Atlas me te pikitia whai muri, ka arotahi tētahi o ngā rārangi pūrākau ki runga i tētahi tārua pūkākā tarapū, ko Sonmi~451, ko tētahi o ngā miriona i whakaarahia i roto i tētahi "wombtank, i whakaritea kia mahi a ia mai i te whānautanga."
I roto i te kiriata mātau, i ētahi wā i mua i ngā tau kotahi mano 1980, ka waihangatia e te Kāwanatanga O Mātau ngā kirihou o ia mōrearea o Te Hononga o Amerika me te whai i a rātou ki te whakahaere i ō rātou hoa tūturu, e āhua ana ki ngā kōrero pūnoho.
I tēnei rā, ka whakarewaina e nga ngā kurī he whakaeke ohorere, a, ka taea e rātau te whakaoti i te nui o te mōrihariha o rātau momo kāore anō kia mōhiotia.
Kua whakawhitia te tīmata ki roto i te momo kotahi, puta noa i te momo (waihangatia ana ngā rauropi hurihanga), tae atu ki ngā rangatiratanga.
Me wehe atu e ngā kaipūkaha iranga te ira e hiahia ana rātau ki te kōkuhu ki te rauropi kaihautū, me te whakakotahi ki ētahi atu huanga iranga, tae atu ki tētahi rohe kaiwhakahaere me te kaiwhakakore, ā, i te nuinga o te wā he tautohu ka taea te tīpako.
I hangaia e hHerbert bBoyer rāua ko Rānānā tā rāua ko Tānemoa te rauropi whakakē ā-ira tuatahi i roto i 1973, he patutere e ātete ana ki te rongoā paturopi.
Ko te GloFish (2003) te kararehe i whakakē ā-ira tuatahi, ko te kararehe whakarerekē ā-ira tuatahi hei whakaaetanga mō te whakamahi kai, ko te haramono AquAdvantage i te tau 2015.
He āhua rite tonu nga whakakōkī.
He tono hei tango i te kī tauwhāinga mai i ngā huaketo hei waihanga i te momo.
Ko te nuinga he rōpū whakahaere mo te manawanui, mo te ātetetanga ngārara rānei.
Ko te nuinga o te wā he uaua kē atu te panoni i nga kararehe, a, ko te nuinga o te nuinga kai te wāhanga rangahau tonu.
Kua whakakētia te kararehe ki te whakaaro o te whakapiki i ngā āhuatanga hira ā-taumaha pēnei i te mokatere tupu, te kounga o te mīti, te hanganga miraka, te parenga mate, me te ora.
Ahakoa he āhua hōu tonu te āhua o te āhua o te ira tangata, kua whakamahia ki te mahi i ngā mate iranga pēnei i te mate kaha o te wairua ngoikore, me te amaurosis konganuku a Leber.
Ko ētahi atu āwangawanga ko te aronga me te mōrearea a ngā mana ā-ture, te tākinotanga o te kai kāore i te whakakē i te ira, te whakahaere i ngā wāhi kai, te whakamana i te ora me te whakamahinga o ngā mana ā-hinengaro.
Kua whāngaia e nga whenua nga tikanga whakatinana hai mahi i ēnei raruraru.
"Kei roto hoki i te whakamāramatanga whānui o te pūkaha iranga he tāuri tīpako me ētahi atu huarahi o te whiringa tangata."","
Hei tauira, i tino āta hangaia te tohu pata kānga, ki tētahi taiwhanga i te tau kotahi mano, i te tau kotahi mano 1930, mā te whakamahi i ētahi huarahi hei whakarerekē i tōna huingaira.
"Kua tautuhia anōtia te hangarau hou hei ""I roto i ngā pūkenga karihi, tae atu ki te whakatohe anō i te waikawa momo (DNA) me te whakatō hāngai o te waikawa karihi ki roto i ngā pūtau, i ngā kaieke rānei, i te hononga rānei o ngā pūtau i tua atu i te whānau tākerau."""
Ko ngā whakamāramatanga e arotahi ana ki te tukanga, he nui ake i te hua, arā, tērā pea he GMOS, he GMO kore me ngā momoira ōrite me ngā tohuāhuahua.
Ka raru ano hoki i te wa e whakawhanakehia ana nga tikanga hou.
Me wehe atu e nga kaipūkaha iranga te ira e hiahia ana rātau ki te kōkuhu ki roto i te kaihautū.
Kātahi ka paheko te ira ki ētahi atu huānga iranga, tae atu ki tētahi rohe kaiwhakahaere me te kaiwhakakore me tētahi tautohu ka taea te tīpako.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka kōkuhua te DNA ki ngā pūtau kararehe mā te whakamahi i te mōkito, e taea ai te werohia mā te pūhera karihi o te pūtau ki roto i te karihi, mā te whakamahi rānei i ngā kaitahuri huaketo.
I roto i nga tipu ka taea tēnei na te ahurea kikonga.
I kōkuhua matapōkeretia te rākau iranga hou ki roto i te huinga ira kaihautū.
E whā ngā whā o ngā karihi whakariterite: ko ngā karihi matimati konutea, ngā karihi pūāhua whakahohe ā-kaitā me te pūāhua whakahohe pērā ki te kaitākākā (TALENs), me te pūnaha Kapo Cas9-karuRNA (he mea urutau mai i te CRISPR).
I te tau 1972 Paul Berg i hangaia te rāpoi ngota DNA tuatahi i tana pahekotanga DNA i te huaketo uri me te huaketo remeke.
Kātahi anō ka taea e nga huakita i whakauru pai ai te whiri i te aroaro o te kanamycin.
I te tau 1974, i hangaia e Rudolf Jaenisch tētahi kiore awhi kiore mā te whakamōhio i te DNA kē ki tōna kikiri, mā te mea koia te kararehe hurihanga tuatahi o te ao.
I waihangatia ngā kiore me ngā kiore kē (i kōrerotia he kiore pūtuku) i te tau kotahi mano 1989.
I te tau kotahi mano e iwa rau e 1983, i hangaia e Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell me Mary-Dell Chilton.
I te tau 2000, ko te raihi koura whai hua o Vitamin A, ko te tipu tuatahi i hangaia ki te uara nuinga nuitia.
I whakaaetia te hīnoke hītinihanga e te huakita, he humulin kua whakaritea hei tuku mai i te Whakahaeretanga o te Kai me te Rongoā i 1982.
I te tau kotahi rau e 1994 kāore i taea e te Calgene te whakaaetanga ki te tuku i te tōmato a Flavr Savr, te kai i whakakē ā-ira tuatahi.
I te tau 2010, i pānui ngā kaipūtaiao i te J. Craig Venter Institute kua waihangatia e rātau te huinga hukarere huakita tuatahi.
I tukuna ki te mākete o Amerika i te tau kotahi mano 2003.
Ka taea te tāpiri atu i te kōrero iranga me ētahi atu mōhiohio iranga mai i te whānui o ngā rauropi ki tētahi whiri me te kōkuhu ki ngā huakita hei rokiroki me te whakarerekētanga.
Ma te nui o ngā whiringa ritenga ka māmā te tango i te DNA i tangohia mai i te huakita.
Ka taea e ngā kaimātai pūtaiao te rāweke me te paheko i ngā tūnga i roto i ngā huakita hei waihanga i ngā pūmua kōrero, pūmua raruraru rānei me te mātaki i te pānga o tēnei i runga i ngā momo rāpoi ngota.
He roa te wā i whakamahia ai te huakita i te kai, ā, kua hangaia ngā uaua tauwhāiti, kua tīpakohia hoki mō taua mahi i runga i tētahi tauine mahi ahumahi.
Neke atu i te rau tau ngā huakita i whakamahia i roto i ngā ahuwhenua.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka hangaia i te Amerika, ahakoa kei reira tonu ngā ture hei whakaae ki te whakanaoranga i Uropi, nō te tau 2015 kāore he hua kai e pā mai ana i te hua o te mītiwhiti i tēnei wā.
Kātahi ka kotia nga huakita, a, ka horoia te pūmua e hiahiatia ana i a rātau.
He kore e taea, he uaua rānei te whiwhi i te nuinga o ēnei pūmua mā ngā tikanga māori, ā, he iti iho te tāwai i ngā moromate, e noho haumaru ake ai.
I waho i te rongoā, kua whakamahia rātau hai hanga i nga mea whakawairangirangi.
Ko ngā whakaaro ko te hurihanga o ngā huakita guta kia ngaro ai i ngā huakita kino, te whakamahi rānei i te huakita rānei hei whakakapi, hei whakanui rānei i ngā whākōkī hauā, pūmua rānei.
Mā te whakahohe i ngā huakita hei hanga i tētahi kopirehe, ka nui ake pea te rongoā mo te wā roa, engari ka taea hoki te whakaara ake i ngā āwangawanga haumaru hei tauwhitinga i waenganui i ngā huakita me te tinana tangata e iti ake ana te mātau i te rongoā tawhito.
Neke atu i te rau tau nga huakita i whakamahia i roto i nga ahuwhenua.
Me ngā kōkiri o te pūkaha iranga, kua rāweketia ēnei huakita mō te nui ake o te tōtika me te awhe kaihautū whakaroha.
Ko nga āhuatanga pokapoka o ngā huakita ka tūkino te huka i te wai karihi ki roto i ngā tioata hukapapa huri noa i a rātau.
Ko ētahi atu whakamahinga mō ngā huakita whakakē ā-ira ko te pārekareka, kei reira ngā huakita e whakamahia ana hei tahuri i ngā parakino hei hanga iti iho te whakakākā.
I te rehetoi o te tau o te tau 1980, ka tahuritia e Jon Davis me te raweke iranga Dana Boyd te tohu ā-Tiamana mō te whāhinetanga (ᛉ) ki te waehere ā-rua kātahi ka noho ki tētahi raupapa DNA, kātahi ka whakapuakina ki Escherichia komira.
Ka taea e ngā kaitātaki te whakamahi i tēnei hei whakahaere mō ngā āhuatanga maha; tae atu ki te tauwāhi ūnga, te kōkuhu rahi, me te roanga o te kīanga ira.
Ahakoa i te nuinga o ngā wā whakamātautau, tērā ētahi angitu mā te whakamahi i te rongoā ira hei whakakapi i te tīmatanga tōrōrō.
Tae mai ki te tau 2018, he nui tonu ngā whakamātautau rongoā, tae atu ki ngā mahinga mō te hemopeka, te pukupuku, te mate pāpaka rūpahu, te mate pīngore me ngā kōpatapata rerekē.
Ko ngā huaketo hHerpes simplex he mea whakarite i ngā rongoā tūturu, kei a ia te kaha e kawe ana, neke atu i te 30 kb me te whakarato i te kīanga wā roa, ahakoa he iti iho te māia i te tukunga ira i ētahi atu raruraru.
Ko ētahi atu huaketo kua whakamahia hei raruraru pūmanawa kino, ko ngā pareketo, ngā huaketo karawaka, ngā huaketo rhabdoviruss, te huaketo mate Āka, ngā pūmanawa kino, me ngā huaketo whakapae.
Kāore tēnei e pā ki ngā āhuatanga wheori, ka whakatara i tētahi urupare ārai māori, ā, kāore he wā mōna ka whakahoki anō i tā rātou taumahi kāore e taea ai te puta ki ētahi atu momo.
Ko te rongoā tino pai rawa ki te Pūhihi, te rongoā a Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) anake, ka whai parenga wāhi noa iho.
Kua whakaaetia kētia ētahi atu momo mate rongoā, ā, he maha atu anō kai te hanga.
I te tau 2004, i pūrongo ngā kaitohutohu mā tētahi huaketo whakakē ā-ira ka pokanoatia te whanonga puku o ngā pūtau hākina, tērā pea ka whakarato ētahi atu huarahi patu.
I werohia te huaketo ki te rākau ārani ki te whānako i te mate rākau kahurangi i whakahekea ai te hua karaka, neke atu i te 70% mai i te tau 2005.
Ko ngā huaketo i whakakētia ā-ira, nāna i māhorahora te kararehe ūnga i roto i te mōtoke o te kararehe, kua hangaia i te whare mātauranga me ētahi atu e tohu ana i te wāhanga whanake o te kararehe.
Kua tonoa he whakarerekē iranga o te huaketo mōtete kia tiakina ngā rāpeti mohoao o European ki te kohu o Iperia, ki te āwhina ki te whakarite i a rātou ki Australia.
E āhei ana ki te pūkaha i ngā pāteritanga te whakaputa i ngā pūmua kua whakakētia i runga i tō rātou mata me te whakauru atu ki ngā tauira motuhake (he tikanga e kīia ana he whakaaturanga pāpaku).
Mō ngā taupānga mahi whānui, ko ngā poke pokepoke e whakapaheko ana i ngā painga huakita hei rauropi pūtau-kotahi he ngāwari ki te whānako me te tipu me ngā whakarerekētanga pūmua hōhonu e kitea ana i ngā eukaryotes.
Kua nui ake te tōtika moītanga o te kotahi, ā, ko tērā e ārai ana i te whakanaotanga o ngā pānga mate pāpāho ethyl mōrearea i te wā o te moītanga.
Kāore rātou i te rite ki ngā huakita me ngā huaketo, ka whai painga rātau ki te whakapoke i ngārara mā te whakapā anake, ahakoa kei te tā rātou ki te tōtika e ngā paturarau matū.
Ko te ūnga ātaahua mo te mana koiora he waeroa, he rongoā rūpahu mō ngā mate whakamate, tae atu ki te rongoā, te kirikā kōwhai, me te kirikā rūhā.
Ko tētahi atu tikanga he tāpiri i ngā pūmua ki te kōhuahua e paraka ai te tarenga malaria, me tango katoa rānei i te Plasmodium.
He maha nga tipu e whai hua ana, ko te tikanga ka taea te hauhake i te pūtau kotahi mai i te tipu pakeke, ā, i raro i ngā herenga tika ka tipu hai tipu hou.
Ko ngā nekehanga nui i roto i te ahurea kikonga kikokiko me te whakatō i ngā pūnaha pūkoro mō te whānui o ngā tipu i takea mai i ngā pūnaha i hangaia i roto i te tupeka.
Ko tētahi atu tauira nui e hāngai ana ki te pūkaha iranga, ko te thahiapsis Arabidopsis.
I roto i te rangahau, ka whakaritea he tipu hai āwhina ki te kite i nga taumahi o tētahi tīnga.
Kāore i te rerekē te whakangā, ka whakaae te pūkaha iranga ki te tango i te tango ūnga me te kore whakararu i ētahi atu tīni i roto i te rauropi.
Ko ētahi atu rautaki ko te whakapiri i te ira ki tētahi kaiwhakahaere kaha, ā, ka kite he aha ka pēhea ina takahitia, me te whakahau kia whakaputaina he ira ki tētahi atu tauwāhi, ki ngā wāhanga whanaketanga kē rānei.
Ko ngā whakapaipai taketake tuatahi i whakakētia ai te tae kua hurihia.
Ko ētahi atu whakapaipai whakakē ā-ira ko tērā te Chrysantheme me Petunia.
I tūkinotia e te papaya mōwhitiwhiti nga rākau papaya i Hawaii i te rua tekau rau tae noa ki te wā ka hoatu he parenga ārai matemate i nga tipu papaya ā-kaikoha.
Ko te whakatupuranga kai tuarua i whai kia whakapai ake i te kounga, i te nuinga o te wā mā te huri i te kōtaha kai.
Ka whakarato nga hua GM ma te whakapiki i te kotinga hau mā te whakaiti i te pēhanga ngārara, te whakanui i te uara matū me te whakaae ki ngā uaua kē.
Kua whakakētia te nuinga o ngā hua GM hei pare ki ngā harakeke kua tīpakohia, ko te tikanga he kōpikopī, he putau pūira rānei.
He takitahi te whakamahi i te tūnga e whakawaehere ana mo nga pūmua māraurau kaitākaro.
He iti iho i te kotahi ōrau o ngā hua whenua GM kei roto ētahi atu āhuatanga, arā ko te whakarato ātete huaketo, te whakaroa o te tikanga me te huri i te hanganga o ngā tipu.
He tono hei whakamahi i te pūkaha iranga ki te whakahaere i ngā kōtae tītaha i roto i te Ahitereiria.
He maha hoki ngā rongoā ki roto ko ngā mea rongoā māori me ngā ara e ahu atu ana ki tō rātou whakanaotanga, kua whakawhitia rānei ki ētahi atu momo tipu kia nui ake te rōrahi.
He iti iho hoki te mōreareatanga o te tāhaetanga.
He utu nui te momo hei whakaputa, hei kawe, hei whakahaere, nō reira ko te whai pūnaha ka taea te whakaputa paetata, ka āhei te āheitanga nui ake ki ngā wāhi pōrahu rawa me ngā wāhi e tipu ana.
Ko te penapena ki ngā tipu e whakaiti ana i te utu mo te wā roa e taea ai te hora, kāore e hiahiatia te rokiroki mātao, kaua e tika kia horoia, me whai pūmautanga roa.
Tae atu ki te tau 2018 e toru anake ngā kararehe whakakē ā-ira kua whakaaetia, ko te katoa o USA.
Canada: Brainwaving I hangaia nga whāngote matawhānui ma te wero i te DNA huaketo ki roto i ngā kikiri, kātahi ka whakatō i ngā kikiri i roto i nga wahine.
Ko te whanaketanga o te pūnaha whakatika ira CRISPR-Cas9 hei huarahi ngāwari, tere hoki ki te whakakē hāngai i ngā pūtau tārai, kia pai ai te wā e hiahiatia ana hei hanga i ngā whāngote whakakē iranga.
Ko ngā kiore whakarerekē ā-ira te whāngote tino ngāwari i whakamahia ki te rangahau rongoā, he ngāwari hoki, he ngāwari hoki te whānako.
I te tau 2009, i pānui ngā kaimātai pūtaiao kua whakawhitia tikahia e rātou he ira hai momo mātākaro (marmosets) mō te wā tuatahi.
Kua whakatutukitia te kōrero pūmau i roto i te hipi, i te poaka, i te kiore me ētahi atu kararehe.
Ko te karapa-1-āraipi tangata tētahi atu pūmua i hangā mai i te koati, ā, ka whakamahia ki te tiaki i te tangata me tēnei hinganga.
Ko nga pukapuka poaka mai i ngā poaka kua whakakētia ā-ira e whakaarotia ana hei whakahōnga ki te tangata.
Kua hangaia nga kararehe kia tere ake te tipu, kia ora ake, kia ārai hoki i nga mate.
I hangaia he poaka GM e kiia nei ko Enviropig, he pai ake te āheitanga ki te kūnatu i te poaka pūtake.
Tērā pea ka whai painga tēnei ki ngā whaea e kore nei e āhei ki te waiū kōū, engari e hiahia ana kia whai miraka kōūru a rātau tamariki, kaua ko te tātai.
Tērā ētahi huatau ka taea te whakamahi i te pūkaha iranga hai whakahoki mai i nga kararehe kia kore ai e ngaro.
Kua whakamahia ki te whakararuraru iranga pēnei i te pērā i te kaha o te ngoikore, me te amaurosis pūrua a Leber.
Ko te hua o te āhua haumarutanga ira meheke, he mea tuku iho, nāna i whakaara atu ngā māharahara i roto i te iwi pūtaiao.
Ko te Aquaculture he ahumahi e tipu haere ana, e whakarato ana i te haurua o nga ika kua pau i te ao.
He maha nga rōpū kua whakawhanake i te paraihe hei kite i te tūkinotanga mā te whakapiri i ngā pūmua ohorere ki te tīma i whakahohea e te aroaro o nga parakino.
I hangaia tuatahitia e tētahi o ngā rōpū kia kite i te tūkinotanga, engari ināianei he wāhanga o te hokohoko ika whakapaipai, hei kararehe whakarerekē ā-ira tuatahi hei wātea i te wātea tūmatanui hei kararehe i te tau 2003, hei hoko i Te Hononga o Amerika.
He rauropi tauira te Zebrafish mō ngā tukanga whanaketanga, te whakatupu anō, te iranga, te whanonga, ngā tikanga tahumaero me te whakamātau i te toi.
Kua hangaia ngā ika GM me ngā kaiwhakahaere ki te whakahaere i tētahi taiaki whakatipu whakatupu hei whakamahi i te mahi kikorangi hei whakanui ake i te tere o te whanaketanga me te whakaiti pea i te pēhanga hī ika i runga i nga rawa mohoao.
I whiwhi whakaaetanga mana i te tau 2015, ko te kai GMO kore tipu tuatahi hei hoko arumoni.
Kua whakamahia a Drosophila ki te ako i te ira me te tōkeke, i te whanaketanga whītiki, te akoranga, te whanonga, me te tawhitotanga.
Kua hangaia ngā waeroa Malaria-ā-tohe ki te taiwhanga mā te kōkuhu i te ira e whakaiti ana i te whanaketanga o te pirinoa o te malaria, kātahi ka whakamahi i ngā endonuclea homing hei hora tere i taua ira puta noa i te iwi whānui tāne (e mōhiotia ana hei puku ira).
Ko tētahi atu huarahi ko te whakamahi i tētahi āhuatanga ngārara kararehe ero, nā reira ko ngā tāngata i hangaia ki te whakakore i ngā tāngata tika, hei whakaiti i te tau o te iwi whānui.
He ōrite te huarahi ki te āhuatanga kararehe kua whakamātauria ki te waeroa, e panonihia ai ngā tāngata ki te ira e ārai ana i te whānautanga o te wahine kia kaua ai e whāngai ki te pakeketanga.
I tēnei wā he pēnei te uaua o te noki pūkeri māwhero i whakaponotia ki te pūkaha, he mea hanga ira ki te whakapuaki i tētahi pūmua ohorere whero kia māmā ake ai te mātakitaki a ngā kaiwhaiwhai.
Tērā anō tērā anō te kaha ki te whakamahi i te mīhini whakanao hiraka hai hanga i ētahi atu pūmua whai painga.
Ko te pīpī GM ka puta mai i te rongoā Kanuma, he whākōkī hōkōkā e pā ana ki tētahi āhuatanga āhua kore, i roto i tōna hēki i puta US te whakaaetanga mana i te 2015.
He tono hei whakamahi i te pūkaha iranga ki te whakahaere i ngā kōtae tītaha i roto i te Australia.
He ngāwari noa iho hoki te whakaputa i ngā nematā whatawhiti, ā, ko tēnei anō me RNAi ko ngā utauta nui e whakamahia ana ki te ako i tō rātou tūnga kē.
Kua whakamahia ngā nematāwhiti hangarau hei ako i ngā huaketo, te hauwaitanga, te mate, me te kite i ngā whakakino taiao.
E taea ana e te mokemeke te whakatupu anō i a rātau mai i tētahi pūtau kotahi.
Kua whakakētia te toke huruhuru, he kararehe taimoana.
I tīmata te whanaketanga o tētahi anga whakahau mo te pūkaha iranga i te 1975, i Asilomar, i California.
He tiriti aowhānui e whakahaere ana i te whakawhitinga, te whakahaere me te whakamahi i ngā rauropi whakakē iranga.
He maha hoki ngā whakamātautau e hiahia ana ki te whakaaetanga mai i tētahi rōpū ture ā-motu, ture rānei.
Tērā tētahi pūnaha tata i te ao whānui hei arotake i ngā mōrearea pātahi ki ngā GMO me ētahi atu māngai ki te kaimahi taiwhanga me te hapori.
Ka whakamahi ngā whenua rerekē i ngā tātaitai rerekē hei whakaahua i ngā taumata, ā, ka taea ngā whakaritenga rerekē mō ngā mea e taea ki ia taumata.
Hei tauira, ko te mahinga kāore i te tika kia whakamahia he kai, kāore e arotakea e ngā mana e whai mana ana ki te whakaora kai.
Ko te nuinga o ngā whenua kāore e whakaae ana ki te mahinga GMO e whakaae ana i te rangahau ki te whakamahi i ngā GMO.
Ahakoa he torutoru noa iho ngā GMO kua whakaaetia mō te mahinga i te EU he maha o ngā GMO kua whakaaetia mō te kawemai me te tukatuka.
Kāore te kaupapahere US e arotahi ana ki te tukanga pērā ki ērā atu whenua, ka kite i ngā mōrea pūtaiao e taea te manatoko, ā, ka whakamahia te ariā o te tino taumata.
Ko tētahi o ngā take matua e pā ana ki ngā kaiwhakarite mēnā me tapaina ngā hua GM.
Ko te tautohetohe ko nga kaihoko, ngā kaiwhakarato, ngā kamupene hangarau, ngā kaiwhakahaere kāwanatanga, ngā rōpū kāwanatanga-kore, me ngā kaipūtaiao.
Ko te nuinga o nga māharahara kai te huri noa i te hauora me te pānga taiao o nga GMO.
Ahakoa rā, he iti iho te kaha o nga mema o te iwi whānui i te pūtaiao ki te kite kai GM he haumaru.
Ka rere te ira i waenganui i ngā hua GM me ngā otaota hototahi, tae atu ki te nui ake o te whakamahinga o ngā harakeke tūwhiowhi whānui, ka taea te whakanui ake i te mōrea o ngā iwi whānau taru kaitā.
Hei whakatau i ētahi o ēnei māharahara kua whakaputaina ētahi o ngā GMO ki ngā āhuatanga hei āwhina ki te whakahaere i te horahanga.
Ko ētahi atu āwangawanga taiao me ngā māharahara pūhāngai koia ko te hekenga o te pūkei mataora, te pikinga o ngā tūkino tuarua (ngā tūkino kāore i te ūnga kino) me te kunenga o ngā tūkino ngārara pareke.
Na te pānga o ngā kai Bt ki ngā rauropi ehara i te ūnga, ka puta he take tūmatanui i muri i te huatau a te pepa kotahi rau e 1999 he tūkino rātau ki te ariki.
Na te kaha ki te raweke ira tangata ināianei tērā pea he māharahara tōtika mo te taenga atu o tēnei hangarau, ki te whakamahia rānei.
I Whiringa 2006, te whakatōpūtanga o te mana whakahaere kai i ngā kamupene e hoko ana i ngā GMO, i te whakanuia o ngā painga o te whakarerekē i te ira, ngā āwangawanga rānei mō te whakamahinga o ngā kaikimi hārau ki te kōpikopako.
I tae mai ngā GMO i runga i te tirohanga i te whakaaro tūmatanui ki te haumarutanga kai, i takea mai i ngā whakamataku kai o nā noa nei pērā i te karapotihu poipoko me ētahi atu hei whakahaere i ngā hua a te kāwanatanga i Europe.
Ko te pūkaha iranga, e kiia ana hoki he whakarerekē iranga, he mātātā iranga rānei, ko te mahi mātātoa hāngai tonu o te kīnga ā-roto mā te whakamahi i te hangarau.
I te nuinga o te wā, ka hangaia tētahi hanga, ka whakamahia hoki hei kōkuhu i tēnei DNA ki roto i te kaihautū.
Ka taea te kōkuhu matapōkere i te DNA hōu, kua tohua rānei ki tētahi wāhanga motuhake o te huinga ira.
Rudolf Jaenisch i waihangatia e ia te kararehe GM tuatahi i tana kōkuhutanga o te DNA kē ki te kiore i te tau kotahi rau e 1974.
Mai i te tau kotahi mano 1994, kua hokona mai ngā kai whakakē ā-ira mai i te tau kotahi mano, me te tōmato o Flavr Savr.
I te tau 2016, i hokona te haramono i te taiaki whakatupu.
Mā te tātā i te tūhono e herea ana mo ētahi here, ka taea te hanga i ngā momo kararehe o ngā mate tangata.
Na te pikinga mai o ngā huawhenua i whakakētia ā-ira, kua puta mai te hua o te ohaoha ki nga kaiahuwhenua i nga whenua maha, engari he puna hoki te nuinga o te tautohetohe e karapoti ana i te hangarau.
Ko te rerenga ira, he pānga ki ngā rauropi kāore i te ūnga, kua whakaarahia hoki te mana whakahaere i ngā kai me ngā mana ā-hinengaro hei take ka taea.
He tere ake tēnei, ka taea te whakamahi hei kōkuhu i tētahi tīwae mai i tētahi rauropi (ahakoa ngā mea mai i ngā rohe rerekē) me te ārai i te tāpiritanga o ētahi atu tūnga tē hiahiatia.
Kua hauhaketia nga rongoā, te rawakore me ētahi atu hua mai i nga kaimahi waihanga hai whakaputa i a rātau.
Ko te koiora waihanga he tikanga puta noa i te pūkaha iranga, he hipanga atu anō mā te whakamōhio atu i ngā rauemi whakawhaiwhai i roto i te rauropi.
Mēnā ka tāpirihia he rawa iranga mai i tētahi atu momo ki te kaihautū, ka kiia te rauropi hua ko te ororeore.
I te tau 1973, i hangaia e Herbert Boyer me Stanley Cohen te āhua ora whakawhitiwhiti tuatahi mā te kōkuhu i te matā paturopi ki roto i te whiri o tētahi Escherichia kotiri.
I te tau kotahi mano e iwa rau e 1976, i whakatūria e Herbert Boyer rāua ko Robert Swanson, i te tau kotahi tau, i hangaia e te kamupene he pūmua tangata (somatostatin) i E.kopa.
Ko te insulin i hangaia e te huakita i whakaaetia kia tukuna e te Food and Drug Administration (FDA) i te tau 1982.
Ko te Whenua o te Iwi o Haina te whenua tuatahi e whakanao ai i ngā tipu awhiwhi, e whakamōhio ana i tētahi taiaho wheori i te tau kotahi mano 1992.
I te tau kotahi o te tau 1995, i whakaaetia kia haumaru ai a Bt Potato e te Taiao Tiaki Taiao, i muri i te whakaaetanga a te FDA, nō reira ko te hau o te waihanga pareketo tuatahi hei whakaaetanga ki te US.
Ka taea te kawe i ngā mata iranga hei whakatau i ngā tīni tūpāpaku me ētahi atu whakamātautau kātahi anō ka whakamahia hei tohu i ngā kaitono tino pai.
Kātahi ka taea ēnei wāhanga te unuhia ma te hikohiko gel.
Ina wehetia te ira ka whakamaua ki tētahi whiri ka kōkuhutia ki roto i te kararehe.
Kei roto i ēnei tētahi rohe kaiwhakahaere, kaiwhakakore, e tīmata ana me te whakamutu i te tuhinga.
Ka taea tēnei āheinga te poapoa ki ētahi atu huakita mā te hau (hei tauira, i te uaina, i te tute hiko rānei), e whakanuia ai te āheinga kiriuhi o te pūtau ki te PĪTAU; Ka taea e te DNA kua tangohia te whakauru ki te huingaira, kei te tīari rānei hei PĪTAUIRA pūmau.
I roto i ngā tipu ka kōkuhutia te DNA mā te whakamahi i te huringa pāpāho-Huaterewa, mā te whakamahi i te raupapa T-DNA o te pūtau e whakaae ana i te kōkuhutanga tūturu o ngā rau iranga ki ngā pūtau tipu.
Ma te whakamahi i te tikanga ki awewe e whakatutuki ana i tēnei tipu.
Ka whakamahia ngā tautohu e taea te tīpako kia ngāwari te whakarerekē i te panonitanga mai i ngā pūtau tē whakawhitiwhitia.
Ka taea hoki e ēnei whakamātau te whakaū i te tauwāhi chromosomal me te tau tārua o te ira kua kōkuhua.
Ka taea te kōkuhu matapōkere i ngā rauemi iranga hōu ki roto i te huinga ira kaihautū, te ūnga rānei ki tētahi tauwāhi tauwhāiti.
Ka tino pai ake te auautanga o te hāngai whakapapa mā te whakatika huinga ira.
Ko te TALEN me te CRISPR ko ngā mea e rua e tino whakamahia nuitia ana, ā, he painga anō tō ia tangata.
Ko te nuinga o ngā GMO i whakahokohokotia, he pareke ngārara, he parekore rānei, he parākeheke.
Ko ngā pūtau kawekawe kiore, kua whakaritea ngā pūtau hei waihanga i ngā ārai monokore, kua whakaritea mā te pūkaha iranga hei waihanga i ngā ārai tinana kotahi.
E whakamahia ana hoki te pūkaha iranga hei waihanga i ngā tauira kararehe mō ngā mate tangata.
Ka taea te whakamātautau i ngā rongoā tūpāpaku ki ēnei tauira kiore.
I te tau 2015 i whakamahia ai tētahi huaketo hei kōkuhu i tētahi ira ora ki roto i ngā pūtau kiri o tētahi tamaiti e mate ana i tētahi mate kiri ātaahua, he pūwhero pōtae, kia tipu ai, kātahi ka hono i te kiri ora ki te 80 ōrau o te tinana o te tama i pāngia e te mate.
Tērā anō ētahi atu māharahara kia kore e taea te whakamahi i te hangarau mō te mōhiotanga anake, engari mō te whakarei, te whakarerekētanga rānei o te āhua o te tangata, te whāurutau, te mōhiotanga, te pūāhua, te whanonga rānei.
Ko tana kī, ko ngā kōtiro māhanga, ko Lulu rāua ko Nana, i whānau i ētahi wiki i mua atu.
I tēnei wā, ka rāhuitia te whakarerekētanga tārai mārō i ngā whenua e 40.
He ngāwari te māmā te tipu, te māmā te tipu, te tere, te tere, te māmā ki te panoni, ā, ka taea te rokiroki ki -80 °C tata kore noa iho.
Tērā pea ko te pānga tēnei ki te tohuāhua o te rauropi, i te wāhi e whakaputaina ai te ira, ko ēhea atu tīra e tauwhiti ana ki a ia.
I roto i tētahi tino māmā kē, kua hurihia tētahi kape o te ira e hiahiatia ana kia kore ai e taumahinga.
Mā tēnei e taea ai e te kai whakamātautau te tātari i ngā hēnga i takea e tēnei irakati, ā, mā reira e whakatau ai te tūranga o tētahi tīpae.
Ko te aratuka tino māmā, me te mea tuatahi hei whakamahi, ko te matawai auku"", kei reira ngū ai ia tūnga ki te aukuuku amino kore tauhohe."
He rite tonu te tukanga ki tērā i roto i te pūkaha tino pai, hāunga ia te hanganga hei whakanui ake i te taumahi o te ira, i te nuinga o te wā mā te tuku i ētahi atu tārua o te ira, ki te whakakā rānei i te kōtuitanga o te pūmua.
Ko tētahi āhuatanga hei mahi i tēnei, ko te whakakapi i te momo ira kōwao ki te ira 'fusion', he tāpiritanga o te ira momo mohoao me tētahi huānga pūrongo pēnei i te pūmua pūngao kākāriki (GFP) e whakaae ana kia māmā te kitenga i ngā hua o te whakarerekētanga iranga.
Ko te tikanga o ngā akoranga kīanga kia kitea te wāhi me te wā ka whakaputaina he pūmua tauwhāiti.
Ko ētahi tīni kaore e pai te mahi i roto i te huakita, nā reira ko te pokeki, ngā pūtau ngārara, ngā pūtau whāngote rānei ka taea hoki te whakamahi.
Ka taea hoki ētahi pānga moroiti whakakē ā-ira te whakamahi i roto i ngā pū biomining me te bioremediation, nā tō rātou kaha ki te tango i ngā konganuku taumaha i tō rātou taiao me te komokomo ki ngā pānga e ngāwari ake ai te whakaora.
Kua hangaia anō, kei te whanake rānei te huarehe me te wheori.
I te tau 2016 kua whakakētia irangatia te Salmon me ngā taiaki tipu kia tere ake ai te rahinga o te pakeke pūnoa.
Kua whakakētia ngā pīnihi me te tīni ā-ira kia nui ake ai ngā hinu ora.
Gene marohitia te whakawhitinga ira ma ngā raruraru huaketo hei tikanga whakahaere i te momo tīrere, ā, i te werohanga i te ao kararehe e whakamataratia ana i te mate.
Ko te nuinga o ngā āhuatanga o te pūkaha iranga i te nuinga o ngā ariā, ā, kāore anō kia whakamahia.
I tūtohutia e te hui Asilomar he huinga tohutohu tūtohu e pā ana ki te whakamahi i te hangarau tāhekeheke.
Kotahi rau e rima tekau ma whitu ngā whenua he mema o te Kawa, a, he tokomaha e whakamahia ana hei tohutoro mo ā rātou ake ture.
Ko te nuinga o ngā whenua kaore e whakaaetia e te mahinga GMO te whakaae ki te rangahau.
Emily Marit, Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture, 44 B.C.L. Rev. 733 (2003) Ko te Uniana o Ūropi pea ko ngā ture pākaha rawa o te GMO i te ao nei.
Ko tētahi o ngā take matua e pā ana ki ngā kaiwhakarite mēnā me tapaina ngā hua GM.
Na ēnei tautohetohe i ahu atu ki ngā tautohetohe, ki ngā tautohetohe mahi a te ao whānui, me ngā whakahēnga, me te whakaiti i ngā ture o ngā hua hoko i ētahi whenua.
Ahakoa kua whakaarahia nga rangirua, kua kitea e te nuinga o ngā mātauranga i te nuinga o nga mātauranga GM kia whai hua ki nga kaiahuwhenua.
He maha ngā tau e mātau ana pea te nuinga o ngā pānga taiao e pā ana ki ngā hua whenua GM, ā, e mārama ana hoki i roto i ngā tikanga ahuwhenua whānui.
He torutoru noa iho ngā whitiāhua i whakamōhio atu ki te hunga mō te pūkaha iranga, engari ko te tama tangata o 1978 o Āwhina i Āhia, i te Pāka Huamata o te tau1993, nāna i whakamahi i tētahi akoranga, he whakaaturanga, me tētahi topenga pikitia pūtaiao.
Ko te tikanga ā-nanongarau, i whakapototia hoki ki nanotech, ko te whakamahinga o te take i runga i te āhua karihi, rāpoi ngota, me te koiora mō ngā take mahi.
E whakaatu ana tēnei whakamahukitanga i te hira o ngā rākeitanga pūhanga quantum ki tēnei tauine whakahaere-whakahaere, nō reira ka nekehia te tikanga mai i tētahi whāinga hangarau ki tētahi kāwai rangahau e huri noa ana i ngā momo rangahau me ngā hangarau katoa e pā ana ki ngā āhuatanga motuhake o te take e pā ana ki raro i te paepae rahi kua tukua.
He rite tonu te rerenga o te rangahau me ngā taupānga pāhono, mai i ngā toronga o te ahupūnga o te ahupūnga pūrere taketake ki ngā toronga hōu katoa i runga i te whakaminenga rāpoi ngota, mai i te hanga i ngā rauemi hōu me ngā ahu i runga i te tauine nano hei whakahaere hāngai i te take i te tauine ngota.
Ko te kupu "nano-technology" i whakamahia tuatahitia e Norio Taniguchi i te tau 1974, ahakoa kaore i tino mohiotia.
I puta mai te āhuatanga o te nanotechnology hei āpure i nga tau kotahi mano 1980, i roto i te ūngutunga o ngā mahi ā-aritanga me ngā mahi ā-iwi a Drexler, nāna i hanga, i mōhio hoki i tētahi anga whakahaere ariā mō ngā āhuatanga o te nanonga, me ngā whakamātautau kitenga tiketike, nāna i āta tirotiro tāpiri ki ngā tirohanga mana ā-ngota.
I whiwhi whakawhiwhia e ngā kaiwhakawhanake whārahi o Gerd Binnig me Ko Heinrich Rohrer i te Taiwhanga Rangahau a IBM Kāriki i tētahi Whakawhiwhinga Kōwhiti i te Ahupū i te tau 1986.
Kāore i whakaahuatia te C60 hei nanongarau; i whakamahia te kupu e pā ana ki ngā mahi whai mai me ngā ipurangi karaponu pātahi (i ētahi wā ka karangatia he ngongo pukoro kauwhata, he ngongo Bucky rānei) e huatau ana i ngā taupānga tūpono mō ngā mahi hiko me ngā pūrere nanoscale.
Nō ngā taurearea mō muri ake, nā ngā nekenekehanga o te hangarau kēti-maha i whakahohe i te tauine o ngā pūrere āpure-konganuku-waikura-takawaenga (MOSFET) ki raro iho ki ngā taumata tauine nano iti iho i te 20 nano ine roa, tīmata i te FinFET (pūwhiti pānga āpure-tūru), tētahi ahunga-toru, pūnaha-kore, kēmu-tauine-rua MOSFET.
Ka puta mai ngā tautohetohe e pā ana ki ngā whakamāramatanga me ngā pānga tūpono o ngā hangarau nano, i whakaaturia e te Royal Society's pūrongo mō ngā tikanga nano.
Kua whakawhāitihia ēnei hua ki ngā taupānga maha o ngā nanomaterials, ā, kāore he mana karihi o te take.
I ahu mai i te hangarau FinFET i runga i te kēti-huri noa (GAA).
Ka hāngai tēnei i ngā mahi o nāianei me ngā ariā e hōhonu ake ana.
Kua tautuhia te tepe o raro e te rahi o ngā ngota (kei te hauwai ngā ngota iti rawa, āhua kotahi hauwhā o te rārangi rānōnō hōnore) mai i te mea me hanga e te matauranga nanonga ōna pūrere mai i ngā ngota me ngā rāpoi ngota.
Hei whakauru i tērā tauine ki tētahi atu horopaki, he rite tonu te rahi anō o tētahi ine ki tētahi māpere ki te rahi o te whenua.
Kei te aronga raro-ake"", ka hangaia ngā rawa me ngā pūrere mai i ngā mōtete rāpoi ngota e huihui matū ana i runga i ngā tikanga o te āhukahuka rāpoi ngota."
Ko tētahi tauira ko te pikinga o te horahanga mata ki te hau kahaoro e whakarerekē ana i ngā āhuatanga pūkaha, haina me te āhuatanga matū.
Ka whakatuwheratia hoki e ngā ngohe mōrearea o ngā nanomaterials ngā mōrea tūpono ki a rātou whakawhitiwhitinga ki ngā whārangi pākoro.
He mea hira rawa te ariā o te āhukahuka rāpoipoi: ka taea te hanga rāpoipoi kia manakohia ai tētahi whiringahora, raupapa rānei i runga i ngā āwhina ā-karu kore.
Ko te tikanga kia taea e aua tohu whakararo te whakaputa pūrere kia whakarara, ā, kia nui ake te taumaha ake i ngā tikanga whakararo, engari ka nui haere pea te nui me te whiwhinga o te whakaminenga e hiahiatia ana.
Kāore te whakanaotanga i roto i te horopaki o ngā pūnahakimāoa i te pātahi ki, ā, me tino mārama te wehe i ngā hangarau taketake e whakamahia ana hei waihanga i ngā nanomaterā pēnei i ngā nanotube irirangi me ngā nanoparā.
E tūmanako ana mā ngā whanaketanga i roto i ngā kura ā-nanonga e tūpono te hanganga mā ētahi atu tikanga, tērā pea mā te whakamahi i ngā mātāpono pūtaiao.
Ko te nuinga o te wā he uaua ki te whakamine pūrere i runga i te tauine karihi, me te mea me whakatū e tētahi ngā ngota i runga i ētahi atu ngota e ōritea ana te rahi me te rākau.
Nā tēnei i whakawhiti pū i te tānga ACS Chemical & Engineering News i te tau 2003.
Kua hangaia e rātou kia toru neke atu rānei ngā pūrere rāpoi ngota taurite e whakahaeretia ana tōna nekeneke i te papamahi ki te huri ngaohiko: he nanotube, he pūkōhetohe rāpoi ngohe, me tētahi kaiwhakamaero nanoelectromechanical oscillator.
Ko ngā nanomaterā me ngā kawenga hinu tere e pā ana hoki ki ngā nanoione me ngā hangaraurau.
I ētahi wā ka whakamahia ngā rau tauine nano pērā ki ngā nanopillara ki ngā pūtau kōmaru e whawha ana i te utu o ngā pūtau o te kaikotahi o te kōmaru.
Ko te nuinga o te wā, ko te whakaminenga rāpoi ngota e whai ana ki te whakamahi i ngā ariā o te matu koiora, me te āhukahuka rāpoi ngota, hei whakarite aunoa i ngā wae rāpoi ngota hei whakarite aunoa i a rātau ki tētahi whakaritenga whaitake.
Kei runga kē i te mākete ngā puku mārō i runga i te mākete, ka whakauru kē ki tēnei whakaahuatanga, pēnei i ngā pūkenga pūāhua putunga ngota (ALD).
Ka taea e ngā kurupae riki arotahi te tango tōtika i te rawa, te rawa moni rānei ina hoatu ngā korohū kāri aroturuki e tika ana i te wā kotahi.
Kātahi ka taea te whakamahi i ēnei hei mōtete rāpoi ngotaiti takitahi i roto i tētahi pūrere kararehe.
Ko te matauranga āhuatanga o te rāpoi ngota he tohutohu e pā ana ki te rāweke rāpoipoi kotahi ki ngā tikanga whakahaere tino mātauranga.
Tērā nga tūmanako mo te hoatu i nga nanohū ki te rongoā.
Nā te āhuatanga karihi o te āhua o te mahi kōpae, ā, tērā pea ka puta tēnei wāhanga ko te take o tētahi atu hurihanga mahi.
Me te hekenga o te ahu-ā-ahu, ka mau i te nui o te ōwehenga mata-ki te rōrahi.
Ahakoa he rite te ariā ki te karu matawai i hangaia e Marvin Minsky i te tau 1961 me te karu acoustic scanning (SAM) i hangaia e Calvin Quate me nga hoa mahi i nga tau 1970, he nui ake te taumira o nga karu rangahau matawai hou, na te mea kaore i te herea e te roangaru o tangi, marama ranei.
Heoi anō, he mahi pōturi tonu tēnei nā te tere karapa iti o te whārahi.
Kei roto i tētahi atu rōpū o ngā pūkenga nanotechnological ērā i whakamahia mō ngā kāwai o ngā ahorangi me ngā nanowires, ngā mea e whakamahia ana ki te pūrere takawaenga, pēnei i te lithography hōhonu ultraviolet, te mīrihi rakau irahiko, pūkino hihi hiku arotahi, ngā lithography nanoimprint, te āpitihanga apa ngota, me te putunga kaipupuri ngota, tae atu anō ki ngā pūkenga rāpoingota, pērā ki ngā kaipupuru paraka-paraka.
He tikanga hira te karapa i ngā tākainga me ngā pūāhua me ngā kupu o ngā nanomateriala.
Hei tauira, mā te whakamahi i te huarahi karapa āhuahira, ka taea te neke haere ngā ngota, ngā rāpoi ngota rānei i runga i tētahi mata me ngā pūkenga tākaingoa karapa.
Ko ēnei āhuatanga ko ngā kōtui matū, te whakaminenga whaiaro me te whakanoho tūnga.
Kairangahau i Bell Telephone Laboratories pera i a John R. Arthur.
Ka whakaaetia e MBE ngā kaipūtaiao kia whakatakoto i ngā apa ngota pū, ā, i te tukanga, hanganga matatini.
Kai te whakaritea nga takai ki ngā rāhui hiriwa kia tere ake ai te whakaora i nga tapahi.
Tērā pea ka taea e te nanotechnology te whakamahi i ngā taupānga rongoā tīariari kia māmā ake, kia ngāwari ake hoki te whakamahi i ngā wāhi pēnei i te tari o te tohunga āhuwhānui, i te kāinga hoki.
Ināianei kei te whakamahia te Platinum hai whakakōkī mīhini diesel i roto i ēnei pūkaha.
Kātahi anō ka whakawhāititia te whakaoratanga o ngā hāora me ngā kararehe waro waikura hai hanga i te waro hāora me te wai hāora.
E Danish ngā kamupene InnovationsFonden i haumi i te DKK 15 miriona i roto i tētahi rapunga i ngā whakakapi whākōkī hou mā te whakamahi i te nano taurima.
Mēnā ka whakamōrahitia te mata o te whākōkī ka puta ki te ngongo, ka whakamōrahitia te tōtika o te whākōkī.
Nā reira, mā te waihanga i ēnei hoariri ka nui ake te pai o te whakakōhiotanga o te pūkaha tīhau e hua ana — i te wā ka tae atu ki te pūngā pūngao mārō - ā, ka heke te utu.
I te hanganga o ngā paepae, ka ngana ngā kaipātai ki te tāwhai i ngā āhuahira nanoscale o te maioro o tētahi pūtau hei whakahaere i tōna whakawehetanga ki raro i tētahi rārangi tika.
I tīmata a TSMC ki te whakaputa i tētahi tukanga hōnore e 7 i te tau 2017, ā, ka tīmata a Samsung i te whakaputa i tētahi tukanga 5 nō i te tau 2018.
Nā ēnei take, e tautohu ana ētahi rōpū kia whakaritea e nga kāinga mahi a nga kāhui.
Tērā pea he putanga kāore i te hiahiatia ētahi hua nanopū.
Ka puta pea ki te maha o ngā mate pukahu, he pūngāwhā ki te ngaua o nga ārai ā-rere, ki nga pūngāwhā o te rere mai.
Nā ngā akoranga matua i whakaputaina inā noa nei i roto i ngā matauranga Kararau ā-Karaihe Kāhua e tohu ana i ētahi momo o ngā ahorangi karaihe – he tamaiti pānui mō te "hurihanga nanongarau– ka pēnei pea ki te tūkino mehemea kua hūtia i ngā nuinga rawa."
Kua tonoa e Tetere (2008) tētahi mahere huarahi mana e whakamārama ana i ngā hipanga kia pā ki ēnei hē.
Ko te hua, kua tono ētahi o ngā tohutohu mātauranga mō te taupānga mārō o te mātāpono whakatūpato, me te whakaaetanga o te mākete takaware, te tohu whakarei me ētahi atu whakaritenga whakawhanake raraunga haumaru e pā ana ki ētahi momo nanotechnology.
Ko te hangarau karihi te hangarau e pā ana ki nga tauhohenga karihi o te karihi.
I timata raua ko Pierre Curie me Marie Curie ki te tirotiro i te ahuatanga.
Tērā pea ka puta ētahi o ēnei momo pūhihi i roto i te take noa, a, he nui rawa te nui o ēnei mahi.
Ka mōhiotia mō tōna kitenga he mōrearea te mahinga o te iraruke, ā, ko te nuinga iti rawa o te tahu ka pā pea ki te tino roa.
I te taenga mai o te ngota kia mārama ake, ka mārama ake te āhua o te rangitahi.
Ko te pirau arepa, ko te wā e tuku ana te karihi arepa i tētahi korakora ārepa, e rua nga iraira, e rua nga iramoe, e ōrite ana ki tētahi karihi helium.
Ko tēnei momo parawhiti te tino mōrearea, a, he uaua rawa ki te ārai.
Ko te toharite o te tau o nga iramoe e tukua ana i ia karihi e haere ana ki tētahi atu karihi, e kiia ana ko te k. Ko te uara o te k e nui ake i te 1 ko te tikanga kei te tukua e te tauhohenga huinga he nui ake ngā tohumohe i te ngongo, nō reira e kīia ana he tauhohenga mekameka tautoko i a ia anō.
Mēnā he rawaka ngā pirau ināianei hei mahi i te tauhohenga mekameka, e kiia ana he āki whakanui te nui, ā, ka tere, ā, ka pahure te pūngao, i te nuinga o te wā, i te nuinga o te wā ka pahuhu.
I te wā o te kaupapa, i whakawhanaketia hoki ngā pūrere tuatahi, ahakoa i waihangatia nuitia rātau mō ngā rākau, ā, kāore i whakaputaina he hiko.
Heoi anō, mēnā he takenui anake te tini ina whakaurua ngā paeroa hēmoe takaware, kātahi ka whakahaeretia te tauhohenga, hei tauira mā te whakataki, i te tango rānei i ngā pūngūhū neutron.
Ki te māmā ake te karihi hua i tērā o te rino, ka tukua noatia te pūngao; ki te taumaha ake te karihi i tērā o te rino, ko te pūngao e tino ngongo ana.
Ko te nui o ngā huanga taumaha e toe ana, mai i te konupeka ki te konupūtoro, ki tua atu rānei, he mea take nā te karihikūte supernova, te R-process.
E whiwhi ana te pūmōro hauwai ki to rātau kaha whakararu tino nui i te hononga, engari kāore e taea te whakahaere i to rātau pūngao.
Heoi anō, ka mahi ēnei pūrere e rua i te ngaromanga pūngao ipurangi.
Ko te whakakotahitanga karihi i te tuatahi i whaihia i roto i nga waahanga ariā i te World War II, i te wa i tirotirohia ai e nga kaiputaiao o te Manhattan Project (e Edward Teller) hei tikanga mo te hanga poma.
Ka taea e nga pūrere karihi iti, te whakararuraru i te taone ma te pahū, te ahi me te pūhihi.
Me pupuri tēnei rākau i tētahi, i ētahi rānei o ngā tāngata momotuhi ā-roto hei tukunga, kātahi ka poapoa i te tūpato (waihangatia he nui takenui) hei whakapakūtanga.
Kei te āhua tūturu tētahi kopūkeheke, arā ko te uranium-235, ā, kua hākinakina i ngā wā katoa, engari ka kitea i ngā wā katoa e whāranu ana ki te nui atu o te pēkeheke-238.
Tērā anō rānei, kai te wāhanga plutonium tētahi isotope e tika ana kia taea te whakamahi i tēnei tukanga.
I whakapakūtia e rātau te rākau karihi tuatahi i roto i tētahi waehere whakamātautau ko "Trinity, e tata ana ki Alamkotoro, No Mehiko, i te 16 o Hōngongoi 1945."
I muri mai i te kino o mua me nga patunga o te patu kotahi, ka tukuna te kawanatanga o Japanese, ka mutu te World War II.
Neke atu i te whā tau i muri iho, i te 29 o Awa 1949, ka whakapakūtia e te Uniana o Rōpū tōna rākau taraiwa tuatahi.
He momo rākau karihi te rākau karihi i hoahoatia hai tohatoha i nga taonga karihi mōrearea i nga wāhi o te hoariri.
Ahakoa e kiia ana he koretake e te ope taua, ka puta ake te awangawanga mo nga mahi whakatumatuma karihi.
I whakaaetia e te tiriti te whakamātau karihi o papakurangi.
I muri i te waitohu i te Tiriti Ārai Whakamātautau Whānui i te tau 1996 (kāore i uru ki te kaha o te tau 2011), kua tautohe ēnei kāwanatanga katoa kia whakakore i ngā whakamātau karihi katoa.
I nga wa katoa o te Cold War, he nui nga patu karihi a nga mana whakahē, he nui ki te patu i nga rau miriona o nga tangata.
I tēnei wā ka hora te hiko karihi, tata ki te 15.7% o te hiko o te ao (i te tau 2004) ā, ka whakamahia ki ngā kaikawe waka rererangi whakanui, ngā kaiwawao me ngā waka whakarewa (nā te mea kua āraia te whakamahinga o te hiko karihi me ētahi tauranga i roto i ngā kaipuke waka).
Ko nga whakaahua rongoā me te rongoā x-ray, ko te whakamahinga ko te kotētiti-60, o ētahi atu pūtake hihi-x rānei.
Kei rāua tahi tētahi pūtake iti o 241Am e puta ake ana ki tētahi ia taimau iti.
Ko tētahi atu whakamahinga i roto i te mana ngārara ko te mahi ngārara ero, i reira ka whakahohetia ngā ngārara tāne e te raruraru, e tukua ana, nō reira kāore ō rātou uri, hei whakaiti i te iwi whānui.
Ko ngā pūtake radioisotope gamma kei roto ko ngā pūtake ray radioisotope, ngā mana X-ray me ngā whakatere irahiko.
Heoi anō, ka whakamahia hoki ki ngā tuemi kāore he kai, pēnei i ngā pūmārō rongoā, ki ngā kirihou, ngā ngongo mō ngā tārere rererangi, ngā whakawera mō te whakamāmā papa, ngā pepa whakaiti mō te takai kai, ngā wāhi kākahu, ngā waea me ngā taura (taratahi), ngā rohe, me ngā kōhatu.
Kua kore e taea e ngā mōkito te mahi matomora te marangai me te haere tonu i a rātau ngohe mōrearea rānei.
Kāore e taea e nga tipu te haere tonu te tukanga huri noa, te taikaha rānei.
Ko te tikanga mō te tukatuka i ngā kai mā te mahinga i ngā mōwhitiwhiti, he teitei rawa te kōpaka pūngao i ia tauwhiro karihi, ka taea te piri i ngā rāpoi ngota me te poapoa i te rikitanga (nō reira te ingoa) e kore e taea e te whakamāmā noa iho.
Heoi anō, he tautohetohe te whakamahi i te kupu, te whakapiritanga mātao, ki te whakaahua i ngā kai kōrerotia, nā te mea he rerekē ngā tukanga rerekē te whakapiri me te whakarereke, ahakoa he ōrite ngā hua whakamutunga tika i ētahi take.
Marie Curie i mate i te heremaia hāngai, i takea mai i ōna tino taumata o te mārakerake.
Tata tonu te hawhe o nga tūpāpaku o hinga o Hiruharami rāua ko Nakasaki i mate i te rua ki te rima tau i muri mai i te mārakerake i te parakitihi.
Ko te hīrea karihi e pā ana ki te nui ake o te mate o te tuku i ngā rawa karihi ki roto i te taiao karapoti.
Ko nga rea hōia i pā ki ngā aituā ōrite ko te TauineHauhau i Te Hononga o Ingarangi me te SL-1 i Te Hononga o Amerika.
Ko tētahi atu kaupapa o te rangahau pūwhiti, me pēhea te pare i te momo tangata i ngā mōrea tūponotanga ā-whanaunga, pēnei i te pakanga karihi, i te tūtuki ā-aorangi.
Ka whakatakotoria e te whakapae he mahi hinengaro ma te tohunga hinengaro o Mōrahi More, ki te tīmata i te whāriki i nga tikanga o te whakawhitiwhiti hei whakaaro nui i te tau1990, me te whakarite i tētahi kura whakaaro kua tipu ake nei ki te nekehanga huri noa o te ao.
I roto i te Discourse, i kitea e Ngā Tāpiripiri he momo rongoā hou ka taea te tuku i te tūponotanga tinana me te hinengaro kaha ake.
Tērā pea i homai e St. Leon he whakaaro mō te pukapuka kōrero a tana tamāhine Mary Shelley Frankenstein.
Ko ia anō, i te āro atu ki te whanaketanga o te pūtaiao o ngā āhuatanga ā-iwi, ki te kanorau (waihanga me te tautoko i te ora i roto i tētahi taiao horihori), me te whakamahi i ngā iranga hei whakapai ake i ngā āhuatanga tangata, pēnei i te hauora me te mōhiotanga.
Mai i tērā wā, he whakawhiti noa iho ēnei whakaaro.
I roto i te wāhanga Matā me te Tangata o te whakahau, e kī ana a Noboru Kawazoe: I muri i ngā tau maha, me te tere o te haerenga o te hangarau whakawhiti kōrero, ka whai "kaiwhiwhi ngaru roro ia tangata i tōna taringa, ā, ko tāna tino whakaaro ki a ia, ā, ko ērā atu huri noa."
I te tau 1966, i te FM-2030 (i mua rā a F.M. Esfandiary), tētahi kaiwhakaako i ngā ariā hou a te tangata"" i Te Kura Hōu, i New York City, ka tīmata ki te mōhio i ngā tāngata e whakaae ana ki ngā hangarau, ngā āhuatanga me ngā tirohanga a te ao ki te tūhono hei ""transhuman"."
Kātahi anō ka tīmata a FM-2030 me Vita-More ki te whakatakoto huihuinga mō ngā tauwhitinga i Los Angeles, arā, ko ngā ākonga mai i ngā akoranga me ngā kaimātakitaki o FM-2030 mai i ngā huanga ā-tohunga a Vita-More.
Ko tētahi tino māharahara ko te āheitanga ōrite ki ngā hangarau whakareitanga tangata puta noa i ngā akomanga me ngā taitapa.
Nā tēnei i waiho ai te Pānga Transhumanist Ao hei whakahaere pūwhitiwhiti aowhānui.
I whakatūria te Pānga Mormon Transhumanist i te tau 2006.
E whakaiti ana te Transhumanism i te tirohanga atarangi, tae atu ki te hanganga o tētahi momo kararehe tino hinengaro nui mā te whakarei hinengaro (i.e. ara ake koiora), engari e mau ana ki tētahi "awatea" hei whāinga whakamutunga o te kunenga uru mai.
Ahakoa he pēnei te āhukahuka ahurea"" ka tukuna ngā rauemi mō te mōhio anō i ngā pātahitanga i waenga i te tangata me ngā mihini mātanga ātaahua, te whakawhitiwhitinga me ngā āhuatanga ā-posthumanism, i tēnei tirohanga, kaua e whakarere i ngā ariā motuhake o te kaupapa "motuhake", engari kei te whakawhānui i ōna "tūturu" ki te whenua o te poutāpeta"
Heoi anō, kua tautohe ētahi atu mātāmua rā, ahakoa ōna āhua whakaaro mahi, kaiwhakahaere rānei, tērā te nuinga o te neke atu i ngā māharahara mo te tika pāpori, mai i te whakahōu o ngā rōpū tāngata, mai i ētahi atu pākahatanga Whakamāramatanga, ki ngā whakaaro whakaataata mō te whānuitanga o te tinana tangata i te rapu i ngā tikanga mārama kē atu.
He tokomaha nga kaiwhi e tirotiro tika ana i te kaha o ngā hangarau ā muri ake me ngā pūnaha pāpori auaha hei whakapai ake i te kounga o te ora katoa, i a rātau e rapu ana i te rangirua o te āhua o te āhua tangata e whakaoti ana i te kupu taurangi o te āhua ture me te ōritetanga tōrangapū mā te whakakore i ngā ārai hinengaro me ngā ārai ā-tinana.
E whakaaro ana ētahi kaupapa ā-ariā pērā i a Ray Kurzweil kei te whakatere te tere o te mahi hou hangarau, ā, ko ngā tau e 50 e whai ake nei e kore e whai hua ake i ngā whakahaere hangarau, engari tērā pea he takitahi hangarau, tērā pea ka huri tūturu pea i te āhua o te tangata.
Hei tauira, Bostrom kua tuhi nui noa atu ki ngā mōrea tūponotanga mo te oranga o te tangata ā muri ake, tae atu ki ngā mea e taea te waihanga mā ngā hangarau puta noa.
Hei ātete i tēnei, ko te whakahaere i te hoahoa ā-kiri o te huinga ira tangata, o te whakarei pūkaha rānei (hei whakarei ake i te mōhiotanga o te tangata me te whakaiti i te mōhiotanga tangata me te whakaiti i te whakataetae, he tino poauau rawa pea te iwi kia ora ai i tētahi pūnaha pārongo kore.
E tautohe ana ēnei kaiwhakamahara ko te kaha ki te kōrerorero i runga i tētahi huarahi whakakore, he paepae ehara i te mea noa iho kia taea e tētahi tangata te kōrero māna anō i runga i tētahi huarahi kāore i te whakamauru ki ngā whakaaro o waho.
I te tiaki i tēnei, he tokomaha nga kaiāwhina o te kaiwhi whakawhitiwhiti, pēnei i te Dan Agin, e pā ana ki ngā kaiwhakawāwā o te whakawhitiwhiti, ki te taha matau tōrangapū, i te taha mauī, he "ngā mea oraora" rānei, ko te "bioluddites", ko te kupu whakamutunga e pā ana ki te nekeneketanga o te rau tau 19 o ngā mahi ā-ringa ka ātete i te whakahōutanga o ngā kaimahi ā-ringa tangata.
Ka puta mai te tauari anō ina whai tāngata i ētahi tāngata i ētahi tōpito rūpū, ka whai painga ki a rātau i te wāhi mahi me ngā aronga akoranga.
Ko te whakaponokore, he ariā tūturu i runga i te whakapono ka taea, e hiahiatia ana, e hiahiatia ana hoki te whānuitanga o te ora wawao me te tūponotanga hangarau, me te tohutohu i te rangahau me te whanaketanga kia tino mōhio ai.
Kei roto i te pāngarau (mai i te Greek: ) ko te akoranga o aua kaupapa pēnei i te rahi (tau ariā), hanganga (taurangi), mokowā (āhuahanga), me te huringa (tātari).
I te wā he tauira pai ngā hanganga pāngarau o te tūturu, ka taea te whakamahi i ngā take pangarau hei homai i te kitenga, i ngā matapae rānei mō te āhua o te ao.
Ko te rangahau e hiahiatia ana hei whakatika i ngā raruraru pāngarau ka roa pea ētahi tau, ahakoa he rau tau, he rauneti rānei o te uiuinga tautoko.
He pōturi noa iho te pāngarau i hangaia tae noa ki te Renaisance, i te wā e tauwhiti ana ngā āhuatanga pūtaiao hōu ki ngā hura pūtaiao hou ka tere ake te tere o te whakahura pāngarau e haere tonu ana ki tēnei rā.
E whakaaturia ana e te tatauranga i runga i te wheua, i tua atu i te mōhiotanga me pēhea te tatau i ngā ahanoa ōkiko, tērā pea i mōhiotia e ngā tāngata o onamata he pēhea te tatau i ngā rahinga tūturu, pēnei i te wā—ngā rā, ngā tau, tau rānei.
I te tīmatanga o te rau tau 6 o BC ki ngā Pythagoreans, he pāngarau Kariki, ka tīmata nga Kariki Tawhito i tētahi akoranga ā-pāngarau hei kaupapa i tōna ake matau.
Ko te mate āhua o te kaimahi taketake o te taketake, ko te Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) o te Syracuse.
Ko te pūnaha tatau Hindu–Arabic me ngā ture hei whakamahi i ana mahi, e whakamahia ana puta noa i te ao i tēnei rā, kua hurihuri i te wāhanga o te millennium AD tuatahi i Īnia, ā, i tukuna atu ki te ao ki te Uru mā te pāngarautanga Āmāri.
Ko te whakatutukitanga tino mātauranga o te pāngarau ā Iwi ā Iwi ko te whanaketanga o te taurangi.
I te wā o mua o te wā hōu, ka tīmata te whānuitanga o te pāngarau i te whakateretanga o te Western Europe.
Tērā pea ko te kaiako tuatahi o te rau tau 19 ko te kaupapa ā-Ariārau o Tiamana Carl Friedrich Gauss, nāna i nui ngā koha ki ngā āpure pēnei i te taurangi, te tātari, te āhuahanga rerekē, te ariā poukapa, te ariā tau, me ngā tatauranga.
Kei te haere tonu ngā hura pāngarau i tēnei rā.
"Ko te take, mathēmatikḗ tékhnē he aha ""te toi pāngarau."""
I roto i te reo English, ka mau te kupu pangarau ki tetahi kupumahi kotahi.
Heoi anō, i kitea hoki e Aristotle he arotahi ki te nui anake ka kore pea e wehewehe i te pāngarau i te pūtaiao pēnei i te ahupūngao; i tōna tirohanga, i te whakarāpopototanga me te nui o te ako hei āhuatanga ka taea te whakaaro"" mai i ngā tauira tūturu kua wehewehea te pāngarau."
Ko te tikanga o te ātetetanga ko te whakakāhore i ētahi whakaaro pāngarau e tika ana e ai ki ētahi atu tikanga.
Nā Haskell Curry i tautuhi pāngarau he pāngarau noa iho "te pūtaiao o ngā pūnaha whai tikanga."
I kī hoki a Popper e mātua whakaae ahau ki tētahi pūnaha hei taumira, pūtaiao anake rānei mēnā ka taea te whakamātauria e te wheako.""
Ko te whakatinanatanga me te whakamātau e tākaro ana hoki i te tātaitanga o ngā tikanga i roto i ngā pāngarau me ngā pūtaiao (atu) hoki.
Hei tauira, i waihangatia e te kaiahupūhāka Ko Rānui Feynman te ara tātai tōpū o ngā kaiaka takawaenga mā te whakamahi i te pahekotanga pūtake pāngarau me ngā kitenga ā-tinana, me te ariā aho o tēnei rā, he ariā pūtaiao kaihanga tonu, e ngana ana ki te whakakotahi i ngā āhuatanga taketake e whā o te āhua.
I ētahi wā ka hangaia te tohutohu i waenganui i te pāngarau parakore me te tauira pāngarau.
Anō i te nuinga o ngā wāhanga akoranga, ko te pahūtanga o te mātauranga i roto i te tau pūtaiao kua whakawhanaunga: ināianei he rau ngā wāhi motuhake i roto i te pāngarau, ā, ko te Mathematics Subject Classification hou rawa e haere ana ki te 46 whārangi.
He tokomaha nga kaikaikarau e kōrero ana mo te āhuareka o te pāngarau, ko ōna āhuaahua kowaenga me te ātaahua o roto.
I whakapuakina e G. H. Hardy i roto i te Whakapae a te Kairangirangi te whakapono ko ēnei whakaaro āhuareka, ka tika ki te whakatautika i te akoranga o te pāngarau tōtika.
Ko te whakawhiwhinga ko te whakawhiwhinga o tētahi whakaarotanga o te ahanoa nā ēnei āhuatanga.
Ko Euler (1707–1783) he haepapa mo te nuinga o nga tuhipoka e whakamahia ana i tēnei rā.
Kāore i te ōrite ki te reo māori, ā, ka āhei ngā tāngata ki te taurite i tētahi kupu (pēnei i te kau) ki te ahanoa ōkiko e ōrite ana ki te, he whakarārangi ngā tohu pāngarau, kāore he tairitenga ōkiko.
Kei roto hoki i te reo pāngarau he maha ngā kupu hangarau pēnei i te kāingatanga me te tūponotanga kaore he tikanga i waho o te pāngarau.
E kōrerotia ana e ngā kaiāhuatanga o te reo me te arorau he "riki."
Ko tēnei hei karo i te hē o ngā tautuhinga", i runga anō i nga āhuatanga hāngai, he nui nga tauira i puta mai i te hītori o te kaupapa."
Ko te pōhēhētanga he take mo ētahi o nga mōhiotanga noa iho o te pāngarau.
I tērā taha, e whakaae ana ngā kaiāwhina tohutohu ki te manatoko i ngā taipitopito katoa e kore e taea te hoatu i runga i te tohu tuhi-ringa, me te hoatu i te tika o ngā tohutohu roa pēnei i te whakaaro o te whakaaro Feit–Thompson.
I tua atu i ēnei āwangawanga matua, tērā anō ētahi wehenga whāiti hei hōpara i ngā hononga mai i te manawa pāngarau ki ētahi atu āpure: ki tētahi atu āpure, ki te tautuhi ariā (kaupapa), ki te pāngarau pirihitini o ngā pūtaiao maha (pāngarau), ā, ina tata nei ki te mātauranga pākahotanga o te rangirua.
E haere tonu ana ētahi tautohetohe mo nga kaupapa pāngarau a tēnei rā.
Nō reira, ko te kāinga o ngā tuhinga kāore anō a Gödel e tohu ana he mana tōtika tētahi pūnaha whai arithmetic taketake, mēnā he oro (ko te tikanga he pono ngā tautuhinga katoa ka taea te whakamatara), kāore i te oti rawa (arā he kuputuhi pono e kore e taea te whakamatau i roto i taua pūnaha).
Kua whakawehea te arorau hōu hei ariā tātai anō, hei ariā tauira, hei ariā whakatika, ā, e hono tata ana ki te pūtaiao rorohiko ā-ariā, ki te kāwai ariā hoki.
Ka whakamātauria e te ariā rorohiko ngā whāititanga o ngā tauira ā-ariā o te rorohiko, tae atu ki te tauira tino mōhiotia —te mīhini Turing.
Mā te whakaaro i ngā tau tūturu e ahu atu ki ngā tau whakawhiti, e whakaraupapa ana i te ariā o te paenga kore"."
Mā konei ka taea e tētahi ngā rōpū, ngā mowhiti, ngā āpure me ētahi atu pūnaha whakawaitara; ko aua akoranga ngātahi (mō ngā hanganga i tautuhia e ngā mahi taurangi) ko te rohe o te taurangi whakarongo.
Ko te pātai torutoru te peka pāngarau e pā ana ki ngā pātahitanga i waenganui i ngā taha me ngā koki o te tapatoru me ngā taumahi pakatoru.
I hangaia te āhuahanga kōpae me te hangarau hei whakaoti i ngā raruraru i roto i te āhua o te ariā tau me te tātari taumahinga, engari ināianei kei te whaia mā te whatu ki ngā taupānga i te arotautanga me te pūtaiao rorohiko.
Ko nga rōpū tūturu e whakamahia ana hei ako mokowā, hanganga, me te huringa.
E puta mai ana ngā taumahi i konei he ariā matua e whakamārama ana i te huri o te nui.
Ko tētahi o ngā taupānga o te tātari taumahinga ko te mīhini whakahaeretanga.
Ngā Tātauira (e mahi ana hei wāhanga o tētahi kaupapa rangahau) waihangatia he raraunga e tika ana"" mā ngā whakatauira matapōkere me ngā whakamātau matapōkere; ko te hoahoa o tētahi tauira tatauranga, whakamātautau rānei e tauwhāiti ana i te tātaritanga o te raraunga (i mua i te wāteatanga o te raraunga)."
Ngā aratuka akoranga tātari ā-tau mō ngā raruraru i te tātaritanga mā te whakamahi i te tātari taumahinga me te apatoko taupānga; kei roto i te tātaritanga ā-tau te mātaitanga o te tātaitanga me te whakawāteatanga me te āwangawanga motuhake mō ngā hapa whakatata.
I whakamōhiotia te Chern Medal i te tau 2010 kia mōhio ai ki ngā whakatauranga o te roanga o te wā.
I riro i tēnei rārangi te tangata mate nui i roto i nga kaikaikarau, ā, e iwa neke atu rānei o ngā raruraru kua whakaotia.
Ko te uara o Pi i whakataungatia tuatahitia e ia.
Nā ngā Pythagoreans i hua te kupu "pāngarau, ā, ka tīmata ki a rātau te akoranga pāngarau mō tōna ake whakaaro."
Na te tautohetohe tōrangapū i whiua ai ia e te iwi Karaitiana i Alexandria, i tīmata anō ai i a ia, na te wareware, ma te wareware i tōna kiri me te waru i tōna kiri ki ngā kupenga (e kī ana ētahi i te tuanui i ngā tāpa).
I haere tonu te pūteatanga mō te whakamāoritanga o ngā kupu pūtaiao i ētahi atu reo puta noa i te kingitanga o ētahi tōkarikari, ā, i puta mai hoki he tohunga ētahi o ngā tohunga i roto i ngā mahi i whakamāoritia e rātau, ā, i whiwhi tautoko anō mō te hanga tonu i ētahi pūtaiao.
Ko tetahi ahuatanga rongonui o te maha o nga tohunga e mahi ana i raro i nga ture Muslim i nga wa o te wharekarakia ko te maha o nga polymaths.
I roto i tēnei wā tauwhiro mai i tētahi āhuatanga tohetohe, ā-porowhita ki tētahi mea nui rawa atu, he tokomaha ōna mōhiohio matatiki he mahi ōna mahi: ko Luca Pacioli (pūtahi o te kaute); Niccolō Fontana Tartaor (raweke rongonui me te kaitiaki pukapuka); Gerolamo Cardano (tauranga tuatahi o te tūponotanga me te whakawhānuitanga huarua); Ko Robert Recorde (rata) me François Viète (rōia).
I whakamahia e nga whare wananga o British o tenei wa etahi huarahi e mohio ana ki nga whare wananga o Italian me German, engari i te mea kua pai ki a ratau te mana rangatira me te mana motuhake kua timata nga huringa i reira i te Age o Enlightenment, ko nga awenga ano i whakahihiko i a Humboldt.
Ka taea e ngā ākonga te whakahaere rangahau i ngā hākari, i ngā taiwhanga rānei, ā, ka tīmata ki te whakaputa i ēnei tākuta ki ngā ihirangi pūtaiao anō.
E whakaarotia ana ko te mātauranga me ngā kaitarau kua whakapāngia, he rua o ngā matawā o te hangarau STEM (pūtaiao, hangarau, pūkaha, me ngā pāngarau).
Ka whakatauria anō e ngā āwhiwhi mahi ngā pātai moni, tae atu ki ērā e whakauru ana i te taumata o ngā koha penihana e hiahiatia ana hei whakaputa i ētahi moni whakatānga, me te huarahi e tuku ai e tētahi kamupene ngā rauemi hei whakamōrahi i te whakahokinga moni i runga i te mōrea.
Ko te pūnaha āhuatanga ā-tuhi mō ngā tau Egyptian, pēnei i ngā tau Roman o muri ake, i heke mai i ngā tohu tatau i whakamahia hei tatau.
Ko ngā pūnaha tau tōmua kei roto ko ngā tuhipoka tūnga, ehara i te ira, tae atu ki te pūnaha momo (take 60) mō ngā tau Babylonian, me te pūnaha whika (take 20) nā ngā tau Maya i tautuhi.
I mua i ngā mahi a Euclid huri noa i te 300 BC, ka īnakitia ngā akoranga Kariki i roto i te pāngarau ki ngā whakapono hinengaro me ngā whakapono hinengaro.
Ko ngā Kariki onamata i hapa he tohu mo te kore tae noa ki te wā o Hellenistic, a e toru nga huinga tohu motuhake hei mati: kotahi te huinga mo te wāhi o ngā wae, kotahi mo te tekau wāhi, kotahi mo ngā rau.
I mōhiotia e Archimedes te hātepe papatono whakawehe roa, ā, ko te hātepe iomatua tapawhā mati-ā-mati, e mōhiotia ana e Archimedes nō nā noa nei i te rau tau 20.
He mātauranga āta whakarite a te Hainamana o neherā e hāngai ana mai i te Puna Haumana o Shang, a, ka haere tonu atu i te Hautūtanga o Tang, mai i ngā tau taketake ki te taurangi arā atu anō.
Mō ngā rau wāhi, ka whakamahia anō e rātau nga tohu mo nga wāhi wae, me ētahi atu mea.
Ko te Chinese o neherā te tuatahi hei āta kite, he mārama, hei hoatu i ngā tau tōraro.
I kī te Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD) i tōna wā, "ka riro i a Indians he tikanga tatauranga e kore e taea e te kupu te whakamihi."
I akona anō hoki e nga Arabs tēnei tikanga hou, a, i huaina e rātau he tāpa.
Ko te tupunga o te taurangi i te ao Āmārō o waenganui, i Renaissance Europe hoki, he mātāmua o te whakamahunga tino nui o te tatauranga i roto i te taumahatanga ā-ira.
Me arotake ngā kīanga tauhanga e ai ki te raupapa mahi e hiahiatia ana.
Hei tauira, ka taea e ngā rorohiko mamati te whakamahi anō i te arawhiti tāpiri tīariari me te tiaki i ētahi atu arawhiti hei mahi i tētahi hurihanga iti, mā te whakamahi i te aratuka o ngā kaiwhiwhi e rua hei tohu i ngā kōaro tāpiri, he tino ngāwari te whakamahi i ngā pūmārō (negation).
Ko te whakarea hoki he paheko i ngā tau e rua ki te tau kotahi, te hua.
Mēnā ka whakaarotia ngā tau e takoto ana i runga i te raina, te whakarea e te tau nui ake i te 1, kī atu x, he ōrite ki te whārōrō ōrite o ngā mea katoa mai i te 0, kia ōrite ai te tau 1 ki te wāhi i noho ai te x.
Kāore i te tautuhia ngā moni kua wehea ki te kore.
Ko te tautuhinga matua o te tauhanga i tohu tuatahitia e te Carl Friedrich Gauss.
E tohu ana te "Tuhipoka tūnga (e mōhiotia ana hoki ko ""tuhipoka uara-wāhi") ki te whakaaturanga, te whakawaehere rānei o ngā tau mā te whakamahi i te tohu ōrite mō ngā whakahau rerekē o te nui (hei tauira, ""ngā wāhi kotahi", "ngā wāhi tekau", ""ngā rau wāhi") me te pūwāhi hiku, ā, he ōrite ngā tohu hei tohu hautanga (cth., ""te whakatekau", ""ngā rau wāhi")."
Ko te whakamahinga o te 0 hei puriwāhi, nō reira, ko te whakamahinga o tētahi tuhipoka tūnga ka taunakitia tuatahitia ki roto i te kupu Jain mai i Īnia, e huaina ana ko te 458 AD, ā, i te rau tau 13 anake i tukuna ai ēnei ariā mā te arawhiti o te ao Arapi, i whakamōhiotia ki Uropi e Fibonacci mā te whakamahi i te pūnaha Arapi
Ko te hua ka tātaitia e te tāpiritanga auau o ngā mati kotahi mai i ia tau e noho ana i taua tūnga ōrite, ka haere tonu mai i te matau ki te mauī.
Ko te mati pito-matau te uara mō te tūnga o nāianei, ā, ko te hua mō te tāpiritanga o muri mai o ngā mati ki te mauī e whakanui ana mā te uara o te mati tuarua (mauī), ka kotahi i ngā wā katoa (mēnā kāore i te kore).
Ko te ripanga whakarea me ngā haupae tekau me te tekau ngā tīwae e whakarārangi ana i ngā hua mō ia takirua o ngā mati.
He rite tonu ngā pūkenga mo te wehenga me te wehenga.
I roto i te kupu pāngarau, kua tautuhia tēnei āhuatanga hei katinga, ā, kua whakaahuatia te rārangi tōmua hei .
Ko te tapeke o te tīwae pene ko te 25.
Ka tukuruatia tēnei mahi mā te whakamahi i ngā uara i te tīwae hereni, me te hipanga tāpiri o te tāpiri uara i kawe whakamua mai i te tīwae pū.
Ko tētahi pukapuka noa e oma ana ki ngā whārangi 150 i tuhia ai ngā taurea "mai i te kotahi ki te tekau mano i ngā momo utu mai i tētahi pauna ki te pauna."
I ētahi wā e mōhiotia ana tēnei mātaitanga ko te pōharatanga.
Ano hoki, i whakamahia te tatau e nga Kairangi Islamic hei whakaako i te whakamahinga o nga whakatau e pa ana ki te Zakat me te Irth.
Ko te tapiritanga (i waitohua nuitia e te tohu tāpiri ) ko tētahi o ngā mahi taketake e whā o te tauhanga, ko tērā e toru e tuwhā ana ki te tuāroto, te whakarea me te wehenga.
I te taurangi, ka taea hoki te mahi tāpiri i tētahi atu wāhanga pāngarau ki ngā ahanoa tārutu pēnei i ngā raupapa vetere, ngā poukapaiti, ngā mokowā roto me ngā rōpūroto.
Ko te whakamahi i te gerundive suffix -nd ka puta "add", "mea hei taapiri".
"Sum" me te "summand" mai i te ingoakōrero Rātini whakarāpopoto "the highest, the top" - me te kupumahi hāngai whakarāpopoto.
Ko nga kupu Ingarihi Waenga o muri mai " taapiri " me te " taapiri " i rongonuihia e Chaucer.
Hei tauira, me tautuhi te kīanga a + b + c ki te tau toharite (a + b) + c, a + rānei (b + c)?
Ahakoa ko ētahi kararehe kaore e whakakite ana i te kaha whāiti ki te tāpiri, ko te tino mātawhiti makawe.
"Mā ētahi wheako tāpiri, ka ako ngā tamariki ki te tāpiri tere ake mā te pokanoa i te āta whakauru atu i te tāpiritanga mā te tatau i te tau nui ake, i tēnei take, ka tīmata ki te toru me te tatau ""whā, rima."""
Zero: Nō te mea ko te kore te tuakiri tāpiripiri, he hakahore te tāpiri kore.
Ka tiaro tētahi kia rua ngā hautanga ira i runga ake i tētahi, me te ira ā-ira i te tauwāhi kotahi.
Mēnā ko ngā tāpiri te tere takahuringa o ngā hau e rua, ka taea te tāpiri ki te pārōnaki.
I mahia e ia he tikanga mau āwhina ā-tō-tō-ā-papa.
Hei tango, me whakamahi e te kaiwhakahaere te kīnaki Pascal's o te tātaitai, e hiahiatia ana he maha ngā hipanga hei tāpiritanga.
Ko ngā tatau XOR me ngā AND mārama tonu ana i roto i ngā arorau mamati e taea ai te kite i ngā arawhata arorau katoa e paheko ai ki ngā mahi arorau matatini ake.
He maha nga whakatinanatanga, ko te āhuatanga o ēnei hoahoa e toru whakamutunga.
Ko te waipuke tauhanga tē manakohia he tino pūtake o ngā hapa papatono.
Kua tangohia tikahia, ko te whakamāramatanga i runga ake nei he taupānga o te kuputuhi hua anō i runga i te tautuhi N2 i raupapatia kētia.
Mēnā he kore te b, mēnā rānei he kore, whakamahia hei tuakiri.
Ki konei, ka hangaia te rōpū āhua e ngā tau tūturu, ā, ko te rōpū tāpiri o ngā tau tōpū.
Ko te āta haere me te pāhonotanga o te tāpiritanga tūturu, kei konei tonu; e whakarite ana i te tau tūturu 0 hei tautuhi i ngā whakahau tōraro, he ngāwari te kitea he tuakiri tāpiri.
Me kite tētahi he tino tautuhi tēnei mahi, e whakatau ana i ngā raupapa-Cauchy.
E rua noa iho ngā huānga o te tau tōpū kōwae 2; e mōhiotia ana te mahi tāpiri e tukuna ana e ia i roto i ngā arorau Boolean hei taumahi "tāuke rānei".
Mā ēnei e hoatu kia rua ngā āhuatanga rerekē o te tāpiritanga o ngā tau māori ki te rīpoata.
He nui ake ngā whakawhānuitanga o te whakarea i te tāpiritanga.
Ko te mea, mēnā e rua ngā tau kahoretōraro a, ā, he rerekē ngā raupapa o te nui, ā, he ōrite te tapeke o aua tau ki tō rātou mōrahi.
Kei roto ko te ariā o te tapeke o tētahi tau kotahi, arā ko ia anō, me te tapeke putua, he kore.
He momo whakarāpopoto"" te whakaurunga i runga i te tauritenga, i runga rānei i te tika, i te nuinga rānei, i runga i tētahi kōpaki manifold rerekē."
He tino whaitake ngā pahekotanga paerangi i roto i ngā horopaki ka tūkinotia e te tāpiritanga tūturu ētahi ture pūnoa, pēnei i te whāranu rauemi i roto i te ariā kēmu, i te whakatōpūnga raruraru rānei o ngā rūānuku i roto i ngā mīhini whakahonohono.
Ko te wehenga tētahi o ngā mahi taketake e whā o te tauhanga, ko ngā tikanga e pahekotia ai ngā tau hei mahi tau hou.
Ko ngā mea i tautuhia ai he whakawehenga Euclidean (me te toenga) ko ngā rohe Euclidean, ā, ko ngā mowhiti raumaha i roto i tētahi kōrero-kore (e tautuhi ana i te whakarea me te tāpiritanga ki runga i ngā tātai tāupe-kotahi).
Ka whakamahia hoki tēnei tohu whakawehe anake hei tohu i te mahi whakawehenga anō, hei tauira hei tapanga i tētahi kī o te tātaitai.
Mā te tuari i ngā ahanoa he maha ia wā i ia porohita tiritiri ki ia wāhanga e ahu ana ki te ariā o te 'tākainga' i tētahi momo wehenga, ā, ka auau te tango i ngā taumaha o te kaiwehe mai i te hua.
Ka taea e te tangata te whakamahi i ngā ripanga taupū kōaro hei whakawehe i ngā tau e rua, mā te tango i ngā taupū kōaro tau e rua, kātahi ka kimi i te taupūtanga o te hua.
Ko ētahi reo papatono, pērā ki te C, whakamahia te whakawehenga tau tōpū pērā ki te pēnei i te 5 o runga, nō reira he tau tōpū te whakautu.
Waihoki, ko te wehenga matau o b mā te (tuhituhi ) ko te rongoā y ki te tātai .
Ko ngā tauira ko ngā poukapa taurangi me ngā taurangi putunga.
Ko te tāurunga o tēnei kīanga ki te nuinga o ngā tātaitai ka puta mai i tētahi karere hapa.
Nā te mea ka whakaiti tēnei whakahōutanga i te nui ake o ngā tau e rua, mā te tukurua i tēnei tukanga ka whakarato rā anō i ngā takirua tau iti ake kia ōrite rā anō ngā tau e rua.
Ko te mea ka taea te whakahua i te GCD mā tēnei āhuatanga e mōhiotia ana he tuakiri o Bézout.
Mā tēnei whakapainga, kāore e hiahiatia ana e te hātepe papatono kia neke atu i te rima ngā tau o ngā mati (take 10) o te tau tōpū iti iho.
He maha ngā taupānga ā-ariā me te mātanga o te hātepe papatono Euclidean.
Ka whakamahia pea te hātepe papatono Euclidean hei whakaoti i ngā whārite Diophantine, pērā i te kimi tau e whakaae ana i ngā āhuatanga maha e ai ki ngā tuhinga toenga Chinese, hei hanga hautanga tonu, hei kimi hoki i ngā tātaitanga tika ki ngā tau tūturu.
I ētahi wā ka tuhia te pānui nui rawa hei gcd(a, b), he māmā ake rānei, hei (a, b), ahakoa he rangirua te rangirua o te tuhipoka, e whakamahia ana hoki mō ngā ariā pēnei i te rīngi o ngā tau tōpū, e pātata ana ki te GCD.
Hei tauira, kāore te 6, 35 rānei he tau matua, nā te mea e rua ngā take matua o rāua: 6 = 2 × 3 me te 35 = 5 × 7.
E whakapono ana ko te whakareatanga o ngā tau tōpū nui he raruraru tino uaua, ā, ko te haumarutanga o ngā kawa cryptographic maha e whakamahia ana i runga anō i te āheitanga.
Ko te tautuhi o ngā pahekotanga paerangi tau tōpu katoa o te a me te b, he ōrite tonu ki te tautuhi o ngā taumaha katoa o te g (mg, kei reira nei a m he tau tōpū).
Ki tētahi atu kupu, ko ngā taurea o te tau iti iho rk−1 e tangohia ana mai i te tau rk−2 nui ake, kia iti iho rā anō te rkrk toenga i te rk−1.
Nō reira, c ka wehe i te toenga o te r0 tuatahi, mai i te r0 = a − q0b = mc − q0nc = (m − q0n)c.
I te tuatahi ka ngana mātou ki te tāpa tapawhā mā te whakamahi tāpa tapawhā b-m-b; heoi anō, ka noho tēnei i tētahi tapawhā r0-a-b tae noa ki te wāhi r0 < b. Kātahi ka ngana mātou ki te tāpa tapawhā rerekē ki ngā tāpa tapawhā r0-ki-r0.
Ko te kupu tautuhi e whakahua ana i te whakamāramatanga o te wehenga Euclidean e whakarite ana he rite tonu te tīariari o tētahi tauheke me te toenga i ngā wā katoa, ā, he ahurei.
I te mutunga o te whitiauau koromeke, kei te pupuri te tāupe b i te rk toenga, ahakoa kei te pupuri te tāupe i tōna tuatahi, rk−1.
E kī ana te kaitātai whenua me te kaiāhua whanaunga o B. L. van der Waerden he take o te VII i tētahi pukapuka akoranga i runga i te kaupapa ā-tau i tuhia e ngā kaitātai whenua i te kura o Pythagoras.
I ngā rau tau ki muri, ka kitea motuhaketia te hātepe papatono a Euclid i Īnia, i Haina rānei, i te nuinga o te wā hei whakatika i ngā whārite Diophantine i puta ake i roto i ngā maramataka tatari.
Ko te hātepe papatono Euclidean i whakamāramatia i te tuatahi, i whakaritea i runga anō i Uropi i te putanga tuarua o ngā rehu o Bachet Problèmes et délectables (Ngā raruraru Rawe, 1624).
I te rau tau-19, i ahu mai te hātepe papatono Euclidean ki te whanaketanga o ngā pūnaha tau hou, pērā ki ngā tau tōpū Gausian me ngā tau tōpū Einstein.
Te āhua nei ko te Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet te tuatahi ki te whakaahua i te hātepe papatono Euclidean hei take mo te nuinga o ngā ariā tau.
Hei tauira, Dedekind te mea tuatahi hei whakamārama i te tuhinga tapawhā rua a Fermat mā te whakamahi i te whakarea motuhake o ngā tau tōpū ahurei o Gausian.
I hangaia ētahi atu taupānga o te hātepe papatono a Euclid i te rau tau 19.
He maha ngā hātepe papatono pānga tau tōpū kua hangaia, pēnei i te hātepe papatono a Helaman Ferguson me R.W. Forako (1979) me te hātepe LLL.
Ka āhei nga kaitākaro ki te tango i ngā taumaha o te pūkei iti iho i te nui ake.
Mā te whakaae kia rerekē koe mā ngā tau tōpū katoa e taea ana, ka taea te waihanga tētahi whānau rongoā mutunga kore noa mai i tētahi rongoā kotahi (x1, y1).
I tēnei āpure, ko ngā hua o ētahi mahi pāngarau (tapiritanga, tangohanga, whakarea, wehenga rānei) kua whakaitia te kōwae 13; arā, ko ngā taumaha o te 13 ka tāpirihia, ka tangohia rānei kia mauria rā anō te hua ki roto i te awhe 0–12.
Ināianei me whakaaro ko te hua e mau ana mō ngā uara katoa o N tae atu ki te M − 1.
Hei whakaahuatanga, ko te tūponotanga o te pikorua o te 1, 2, 3, 4 rānei, kotahi tonu te 41.5% 17.0% 9.3, me te 5.9.
Kotahi te huarahi hauākore ki te kimi i te GCD o ngā tau māori e rua a me te b, ko te tatau i a rātau kaiwhakawehe noa iho; kātahi ko te GCD te kaiwhakawehe pūnoa nui rawa atu.
E ai ki te mea i tuhipokatia i runga, he ōrite te GCD ki te hua o ngā take matua i tiria e ngā tau e rua a me te b. He hīkoakore hoki ngā tikanga o nāianei mō te whakarea matua; He maha tonu ngā pūnaha tuhimuna o nāianei e whakawhirinaki tonu ana ki tērā tauwhāiti.
Kei te whakamahi te hātepe papatono GCD a Lehmer i te āhuatanga ahuwhānui ōrite ki te hātepe ā-rua hei whakatere ake i ngā tātaitanga GCD i ngā turanga pohewa.
Ka taea te whakamahi i te hātepe papatono Euclidean hei whakaoti i ngā whārite rārangi Diophantine me ngā raruraru toenga o Hainamana mō ngā taumaha maha; Ka taea hoki te tautuhi nga hautanga haere tonu o ngā taumaha.
He rohe whakarea motuhake tētahi rohe Euclidean ( UFD), ahakoa kāore i te tika te kōrero.
Ko te rohe Euclidean he rohe tino pai i ngā wā katoa (PID), he rohe tau tōpu kei reira he tino pai ai ia tino pai.
Ka whakamahia hoki ngā tau me ngā tautuhinga ki ngā hautanga kāore i te noa iho, tae atu ki ngā hautanga pūhui, ngā hautanga matatini, me ngā tau whāranu.
I whakamahia tuatahitia te kōrero hei wehe i tēnei momo hautanga i te hautanga wahine e whakamahia ana i te tātaitai.
I whakamaramahia tenei i roto i te pukapuka o te rautau 17th The Ground of Arts.
Ko te hua o te hautanga me tōna taupoki ko te 1, nā reira ko te taupoki te kōaro taurea o te hautanga.
Ka noho te toenga hai tau o te wāhanga hautanga.
Nō te 5×17 (= 85) he nui ake i te 4×18 (= 72), ko te hua o te whakataurite ko te .
No te mea kotahi te tuatoru o te koata, kotahi te tekau ma rua, e rua nga tuatoru o te koata e rua tekau ma rua.
I ētahi wā e hiahiatia ana he ira tukurua mutunga kore mutunga kore e taea ai te ōrite te ōrite.
I whakamahia e te Egyptians nga hautau Egypt BC.
I hōmai e rātau tikanga te whakautu ōrite ki nga tikanga hou.
Te āhua nei i takea mai tētahi kīanga hou o ngā hautanga e mōhiotia ana hei bhinnapara i Īnia i roto i te mahi Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, me Bhaskara.
I roto i te pāngarau, ko te tauhanga kōwae he pūnaha tauhanga mō ngā tau tōpū, kei reira ngā tau "tākai huri noa" ina tae ki tētahi uara, e kīa nei ko te kōwaewae.
Ko te taupānga tino ā-ringa ko te tatau i ngā taki i roto i ngā pūtāutu tau rangatū.
Whakamahia e RSA rāua ko Diffie–Hellman te whakapūnaha kōwae.
Ka whakamahia e ngā whakatinanatanga tino mōhio o te pūwehe pūnoa taumaha, te pūāhua paerangi mārama me ngā hātepe pū o Gröbner mā runga i ngā tau tōpū me ngā tau haumaru.
He taupānga o te tauhanga kōwae, e whakamahia ana i roto i ngā reo papatono me ngā tātaitai papatono maha, he taupānga o te tauhanga kōwae, e whakamahia ana i tēnei horopaki.
Ko te tikanga o te whakarewa atu i te iwa, ka tukuna he tiro tere o ngā tatauranga tauhanga tekauira ka mahia e te ringa.
Ka taea te whakaoti i tētahi pūnaha paerangi o te pūnaha pūhui maha me tētahi momo whakakoretanga Gaussian, mō ngā taipitopito tirohia te tauwhāinga rārangi.
Ko te whakareatanga o ngā tau tōpū (tae atu ki ngā tau tōraro), ngā tau hautanga (hautanga) me ngā tau tūturu ka tautuhia e tētahi ahuwhānui pūnaha o tēnei tautuhinga taketake.
He momo inenga hou te hua o nga inenga e rua.
He whakawehenga te mahi kōaro o te whakarea.
He ōrite ki te 1 te wehenga o tētahi tau atu i te 0.
Mā tēnei whakamahinga mōhiotanga o te whakarea ka pōhēhē te pōhēhē ina rite ngā tāupe whakarea ki te ingoa o tētahi atu tāupe, ina āhei te ingoa tāupe i mua i te reu ki tētahi ingoa taumahi, i roto rānei i te mana whakahaere tika o te raupapa mahi.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka kiia ngā tau ko "ngā take."
Heoi anō ko te hua o te whakarea, kāore e whakawhirinaki ana ki te raupapa o ngā take, he whai take anake te wehenga i waenganui i te "whakarea" me te "whakarea" i te taumata matua rawa me ētahi hātepe papatono whakarea, pēnei i te whakarea roa.
Ko te hua o te whakarea, ko te hua.
I whakaaetia e te ture kiriata kia tere te whakarea o ngā tau ki ngā wāhi tika e toru.
E hoatu ana te kaupapa ahuwhānui ma te tātari ahuwhānui.
Kāore he raupapa o nga tau matatini.
Kei konei tā mātou tuakiri 1, e ātete ana ki ngā rōpū i raro i tāpiri i te wāhi tuakiri 0 noa iho.
Kia kite i tēnei, tirohia te huinga o ngā poukapa tapawhārite kōaro o tētahi ahu kua hoatu ki runga i te āpure i tukuna.
Ko tētahi atu mea e tika ana kia kitea ehara ngā tau tōpū i raro i te whakarea i te rōpū — ahakoa ka aukatia e tātau te kore.
I roto i te pāngarau, he ōrautanga (mai Latin mō ia hōneto "mā te rau) he tau, ōwehenga rānei i whakapūtātia hei hautanga o te 100."
He ōrite te tatautanga ki ēnei hautanga ki ngā ōrautanga tātaitanga.
Ina kōrero koe mō tētahi ōrautanga, me whakapūtā e hiahia ana kia pā ki te (i.e., he aha te tapeke e ōrite ana ki te 100%).
Ina kōrero ana ki tētahi "10% piki, te ""10% hinganga"" rānei, ko te tikanga noa iho, he pātahi tēnei ki te uara tuatahi o taua rahinga."
Ka pā pea te pōhēhētanga i waenganui i ngā ariā rerekē o te ōrau me ngā ira ōrau he pōhēhētanga nui ina pūrongo ngā kaihautū mō ngā hua pōti, hei tauira, e whakaatu ana i ngā hua hōu me ngā rerekētanga ki ngā hua tōmua hei ōrautanga.
Kua whakaingotia te kupu ki te Latin mō ia hōnete.
I te nuinga o te wā e rerekē ana ngā kaiārahi wetereo me te kāhua ki te āhua o te ōrautanga o te tuhituhi.
I te wa e tino iti ana nga reiti huamoni, ka whakauruhia te nama 0 mena he iti iho te utu huamoni i te 1%, hei tauira "% Treasury Stock", kaua ko "% Treasury Stock".)
Waihoki, ko te ōrau toa o tētahi tīma, ko te hautanga o ngā ōrite i toa ai te karapu, ka whakahuatia hoki hei wāhanga ira; kua eke ki tētahi tīma whai ōrautanga toa .500 te 50% o ō rātou ōritenga.
Ka whakarongo hoki te tangohanga ki ngā ture mōhiotia e pā ana ki ngā mahinga pātahi, pēnei i te tāpiritanga me te whakarea.
Ko tētahi o ngā tūmahi ā-tau ngāwari rawa te whakamahi i te tūmahi ā-roto i ngā tau tūturu.
I tōna tikanga, e mōhiotia ana te tau e tangohia ana ko te tahuaroto, i te mea ko te tau e tangohia ana mai i te minuend.
Ko te "Subtraction"" he kupu English e pā mai ana i te kupu kupumahi Latin ināianei, arā, he pūhui o roto ""mai i raro"" me te trahere "ki te kume"."
Mai i te tūnga 3, kāore he hipanga ki te taha mauī kia noho ai i te 3, nō reira .
Hei tohu i tēnei mahi, me whakatoro te raina.
Kātahi ka turakina te "mati tōmua" "1"" o te hua."
I te wāhi o te tekau, he iti iho te 0 i te 1, nā reira ko te 0 e neke atu ana ki te 10, ā, ko te rerekētanga ki te 1, ko te 9, kua tuhia ki te wāhi kotahi tekau.
Kātahi ka haere te tangohanga ki ngā rau wāhi, e kore ai e iti iho te 6 i te 5, nō reira ka tuhia te rerekētanga ki te wāhi rau o te hua.
Engari ka whakanui ake i te rau i roto i te kotahi.
Ko te whakautu te 1, a, kua oti te tuhituhi ki te wāhi rau o te hua.
Ko te Pierre Fermat i te tau kotahi mano e 1637 i te tawhē o tētahi kape o Arithmetica, i whakapuakina e ia he tohu tino nui rawa tōna hei whakauru ki te tawhē.
Ko te tuhinga tae e rima, he tohu mātāmua poto tōna, e kī ana ka nui ngā tae e rima ki te tae i tētahi mahere, ā, i tohua i te tōmuritanga o te rau tau 19; heoi anō, i te whakamatau he raruraru rawa atu nga tae e whā.
Ko te whakaaro nui tuatahi i whakamātauria mā te whakamahi i tētahi rorohiko.
Anō hoki, ko ngā mahere ka taea pea hei tauira-kore me whai wāhanga āhua nei ko tētahi o ēnei mahere e 1,936.
I tātai tuatahitia i te tau 1908, e te Steinitz me Tietze.
Ko ngā momo V i runga i tētahi āpure paetata me ngā huānga tāpae he nui ngā ira haumaru, ā, ko ngā ira i runga i ia āpure papatipu me ngā huānga qk kei roto taua āpure.
Ko te taketake i whakaarotia e Henri Poincare, e whakaaro ana te whakatakoto ki tētahi mokowā e āhua ana ki te mokowā ahu-toru noa, engari kua tūhonotia, paetata te rahi, ā, kāore he rohenga (he kōpaki-3-manifold kua katia).
I muri iho i te tata o te rau tau e whai ana i nga kaitautapa, ka whakaaturia e Grigori Perelman he tohu o te kuputuhi i roto i nga pepa e toru i whakawāteatia i te tau 2002 me te 2003 i runga i te arXiv.
I oti i a Perelman tēnei wāhanga o te whakatika.
Ka pātaihia ā taihoa, mēnā ko ngā raruraru katoa ka taea te manatoko tere e tētahi rorohiko, ka taea hoki te whakaoti tere e te rorohiko; e whakaarohia ana, ko te whakautu ko te kāo.
Kahore anō kia kitea he teka te tangata, engari he whakapono whānui kei te pono te kupu whakaaro tuatahi, he teka hoki te tuarua.
Hei tauira, kua whakamātauria te kuputuhi Collatz, e māharahara ana mēnā kua whakamutua ētahi raupapa tōpū, kāore rānei, mō ngā tau tōpū katoa tae atu ki te 1.2 × 1012 (neke atu i te tīariari).
He momo tērā taunaki, pēnei i te manatokonga o ngā hua, i ngā hononga pakari rānei ki ngā hua e mōhiotia ana.
Kotahi te tikanga whakatika, e hāngai ana mēnā he nui noa iho ngā take e tūpono ana ki te tauwhāiti, e mōhiotia ana he "ākinga poau: i tēnei huarahi, ka whakaarotia ngā take katoa, ā, kāore e whakaaturia kia kaua e hoatu i ngā tauwhainga."
I te mutunga ka whakaaturia mai he takitahi te pānga o ētahi huinga kore mutunga kore, i te wā ka whakaaetia e te pānuitanga o ngā tuhinga aZermelo–Fraenkel.
He torutoru nga kaitirotiro tau e rangirua ana he pono te ariā a Riemann.
He mahere taumaha te mahere rārangirau, e kīia ana hei tauira pūranga, he pēhea te putanga mai o ngā whanonga ohorere i ngā whārite hihiri kāore i te rārangi-kore.
Kepler i kitea koia te tepe o te ōwehenga o ngā tau Fibonacci whai atu.
Nā ngā take e rua ka raruraru pea tēnei whakaaturanga.
Hei tauira, ko ngā whakaaturanga e rua 0.999... ā, ko te 1 e ōrite ana ki te āhua e tohu ana rātau i te tau ōrite.
Ko te whakamahi i ngā rorohiko me ngā pūwhakaatukatua, ko ētahi o ngā taimau pāngarau, tae atu ki te π, e, me te pūtake tapawhā o te 2, kua tātaitai ki ngā mati kotahi rau miriona.
I te nuinga o te rerekētanga o ētahi taimau i te momo tūturu, i waihangatia ai he tuhipoka hou hei tohu tika i a rātou.
I ētahi wā, he kupu katoa te tohu e tohu ana i te taimau.
He tau te 0 (kore), ā, ko te mati ā-tau i whakamahia hei tohu i taua tau ki ngā tau.
Ko ngā ingoa mō te tau 0 Ingarihi ko te kore, kore tau (UK), kore (US; ), kore, —rānei—i roto i ngā horopaki e wehe atu ana tētahi mati pātata i te pū O"—aue, o rānei."
Mo te ariā ngāwari o te hapa, kaore he kupu, ā, kaore he mea e whakamahia ana.
I te nuinga o te wā e karangatia ana ko te oh i roto i te horopaki o ngā tau waea.
Ko te tohu nfr, ko te tikanga ātaahua, i whakamahia hoki hei tohu i te taumata pūtake o ngā tātuhi o ngā urupa me ngā tara, me te ine tawhiti e pātahi ana ki te raina pūtake, kei runga, ki raro rānei i tēnei raina.
Ehara te puriwāhi Babylonian i te kore pono nā te mea kāore i whakamahia anake, kāore hoki i whakamahia i te mutunga o tētahi tau.
Nā te AD 150, ko Ptolemy, i awea e ngā Hipparhus me nga Babylonian, e whakamahi ana i tētahi tohu mo te kore i roto i tana mahi i runga i te mātauranga ariki ā-pāngarau, ko ngā Kupu Wetereo, e mōhiotia ana hoki ko te Aramira.
I tāruatia tēnei whakamahinga i te AD525 i tētahi ripanga ōrite, i whakamāoritia mā te kupu Rātini kore, kore"" rānei e Dionysius Exiguus, i te taha o ngā tau rōmana."
Ko te Lokavibhāga, he kupu Jain i runga i te mahi mita ā-roto, e ora ana i roto i tētahi whakamāoritanga hōtoke o te taketake o te Netiti, ā, kei roto nei ko te AD 458 (Saka era 380), ka whakamahi i tētahi pūnaha uara tauwāhi ā-ira, tae atu ki te kore.
"I te 813, ka whakamahia e al-Khwarizmi ngā tau Hindu i roto i ana ripanga torangatahi."
I whakamāoritia tēnei pukapuka ki te reo Rātini i te rau tau-12 i raro i te taitara o Algoritmi de Indorum.
I whai hohonu ahau i taku akoranga, a, i akona e au te tautohetohe.
Kua tohe ahau ki te tito i tēnei pukapuka i runga i te māramatanga o tōku māramatanga, i ahau i whakawehe kia kotahi tekau mā rima nga upoko.
Ko nga whika Īnia e iwa ko: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.
Kei roto i te 254–255 te 0 hei tau tūturu, nō reira ko ia anake te tau tūturu ehara i te mea tōrunga.
Hei uara, he tau rānei, kāore te kore i te ōrite ki te mati kore, e whakamahia ana ki ngā pūnaha tatau whai tuhipoka tūnga.
Tērā pea, kāore pea te tau 0 i whakaarohia he tau tūturu, engari he tau tōpū, nō reira he tau haumaru me tētahi tau tūturu (me te tau taurangi me te tau matatini).
Kāore e taea te tau matua, nā te mea he nui rawa ngā āhuatanga, ā, kāore e taea te hiato nā te mea kāore e taea te whakapuaki hei hua o ngā tau matua (hei 0 me noho tonu hei tētahi o ngā take).
Ka hoatu ēnei ture mō tētahi tau tūturu, matatini x rānei, engari rawa atu i kōrerotia.
Ko te taumahi katinara, e hoatu ana ki te huinga wātea, ka whakahokia te huinga wātea hei uara, nā reira e tautapa ana kia 0 ngā huānga.
I roto i te taurangi waitohu, ko te 0 e whakamahia nuitia ana hei whakaatu i tētahi huānga kore, he huānga kūpapa hei tapiri (mēnā i tautuhia ki te hanganga i raro i te whakaaro) me te huānga pāngia mō te whakarea (mēnā ka whakaritea).
Mō ētahi nuinga, ko te taumata kore e mārama ana mai i ērā atu taumata katoa, he iti iho rānei te kōwhiringa mō ētahi atu.
Kua whakaaturia tērā pea ka rawaka tonu te mahi o te tautau o nga hēmoe e whā kia whakaarotia he ngota i tōna ake mana.
Hei tauira, ko ngā huānga o tētahi huānga kua tau ki te tīmatanga mai i te 0 ki te C, kia taea ai te huānga o ngā tuemi n te raupapa o ngā taupū huānga mai i te 0 ki te .
I ngā pātengi raraunga, kāore he uara mō tētahi āpure.
Mō ngā āpure kupu kāore tēnei i te pātea, i te aho putua rānei.
Mā tētahi rorohiko tae atu ki tētahi uara korenga e tuku i tētahi hua korenga.
I te Tātai Tuatahi, mēnā kāore e whakataetae ana te Toa Ao whakahaere i te Tātai Tuatahi i te tau i muri i to rātau wikitōria i te whakataetae taitara, ka hoatu 0 ki tētahi o ngā atekōkiri o te tīma i riro i te toa kingi te taitara.
Kāore ngā pūrere patotuhi i whakarite i te hanga i waenga i te O me te 0; Kāore anō ētahi tauira kia motuhake te kī mō te mati 0.
Te āhua nei kua takea mai te mati 0 me tētahi ira i waenganui hei kōwhiringa ki ngā whakaaturanga IBM 3270, ā, kua haere tonu me ētahi patotuhi rorohiko hōu pēnei i te Andalé Mono, i ētahi pūnaha tārewa tūtei.
Ko te 1 (kotahi, e kiia ana hoki ko te wae, me te kotahi) he tau, he mati tau e whakamahia ana hei tohu i taua tau i roto i ngā tau.
I roto i ngā tikanga tohu kāore e whakaarotia ana ko te kore e tōrunga, tōraro rānei, ko te 1 te tau tōpū tōrunga tuatahi, iti rawa hoki.
Ko te nuinga mēnā kāore ngā āhuatanga katoa o te 1 e taea te whakaputa mai i tēnei.
Koia te tau tōpū i muri i te kore.
I tukuna ki Europe ma te Maghreb me Andalusia i te Middle Ages, na roto i nga mahi tohunga i tuhia ki te reo Arabic.
Ko ngā kāhua kāore e whakamahi ana i te paturunga roa i runga i te mati 1 i te nuinga o te wā kāore e whakamahi i te hahau whakapae mā te poutū o te mati 7.
Hei whakamahukitanga, ko te 1 te rahi, te uara pūmau, te tau matatini rānei o tētahi wae matatini, te poukapa wae, me te poukapa wae (ko te tikanga ka kīia he poukapa tuakiri).
I roto i te apatoko kāwai, ka whakamahia te 1 hei whakaatu i te ahanoa kāpeka o tētahi kāwai.
Nā te taumahi taupū 1 pūtake (1x) i ngā wā katoa e ōrite ana ki te 1, kāore tōna kōaro i te tīariari (e kiia ana ko te pūtake taupū kōaro 1 mehemea e tīariari ana).
Waihoki, he rite tonu te whakapūnoa o ngā rarangi arotahi ki ngā rarangi arorangi (i.e., ngā rarangi nui rawa), nā te mea he maha ake ngā āhuatanga e hiahiatia ana ēnei.
Koia hoki te tau tuatahi, tuarua hoki i roto i te raupapa Fibonacci (0 ko te kore) ā, ko te tau tuatahi i roto i ētahi atu raupapa pāngarau maha.
Ahakoa rā, ka taea e te kupu taurangi whakaahua te whakaaro ki te āpure ki te huānga kotahi, ehara nei i te mea kotahi, ehara i te mea tautuhi.
Ko te waehere ā-rua he raupapa o te 1 me te 0 ka whakamahia i roto i ngā rorohiko hei tohu i ētahi momo raraunga.
Ko +1 te utu hiko o ngā paepae me ngā pū protons.
Te kaipōtuku o Neopythagoreana I whakapuakina e Nicomachus o Gerasa ehara tētahi i te tau, engari ko te pūtake o te tau.
Ko te waiata “We Are Number One” he waiata no te tau 2014, mai i te whakaaturanga tamariki, koi LazyTown, i whai rongonuitanga hei “meme”.
I roto i te whutuporo (poikiri) ka hoatu te nama 1 ki te kaitiaki.
1 te tau iti rawa e whakaaetia ana kia whakamahia e ngā pūpāpāho o te Rōpū Hōkī o te Motu o te Rōpū Hōkī (NHL); I rāhuitia e te rōpū whakahaere te whakamahinga o te 00 me te 0 i te tōmuri o ngā tau kotahi mano e 1990 ana (te tau tiketike rawa e whakaaetia ana kia 98).
Kei roto i ngā raupapatanga matapōkere o ngā mamati ngā tikanga noa iho e whakaatu matapōkeretia ana, e te whakatakoto uri mutunga kore mutunga kore.
Tuarua, i te mea kāore e taea te hanga i te tua atu ki te kāpehu me te whakatikatika, e kore e taea te "tapawhā i te porowhita."
I whakamahia e te Aryabhata a te kaitātai arorangi Īnia tētahi uara 3.1416 i roto i tana Āryabhaṭīya (499 AD).
I hangaia e te kaitātai arorangi o Pēhia ko Jamshīd al-Kāshī ngā mati momo 9, āhua rite tonu ki ngā mati 16, i te tau kotahi mano e 1424 mā te whakamahi i te tapamaha e 3×228 ngā taha, e tū ana hei pūkete o te ao mō te 180 tau.
Ka karo ēnei i te whakawhiringa nui ki nga rangatū mutunga kore.
E ai ki te mea i whakakētia e Salamin rāua ko Peneni, e kīia ana hoki ko te hātepe Papatūānuku–Salamin.
He rerekē tēnei ki ngā rangatū mutunga kore noa, ki ngā hātepe iterā rānei, e pupuru ana, e whakamahi ana hoki i ngā mati waenga katoa kia puta rā anō te hua whakamutunga.
Ko taua maumaharatanga ko te AIDS e kiia ana ko te mnemonics.
He pūāhua rākau nui nga mati e āpiti ana ki te tuanui ōrite ki te kuhanga.
He tohu kotahi te mati tau e whakamahia ana anake (pēnei i te "2) i ngā pahekotanga rānei (pēnei i te ""25"), hei tohu tau i roto i tētahi pūnaha tau tūnga."
He mati ahurei tō tētahi pūnaha tau tūnga mō ia tau tōpū mai i te kore tae atu ki te, engari kāore i roto, te hiku o te pūnaha tau.
He tino ōrite nga tau taketake ki ngā mea o nāianei, tae atu ki nga awhi i whakamahia hei tohu i ngā mati.
I whakamahia e ngā Maya tētahi tohu anga hai tohu kore.
He ōrite te pūnaha tau Thai ki te pūnaha tātai Arabic-Hindu hāunga ngā tohu e whakamahia ana hei tohu i ngā mati.
He pūnaha pūtake 3 rāua.
Kua kitea e ētahi kaituhi i ngā tau e 300 nei tētahi pūāhuatanga tauwāhi e nui ana ki tētahi whakaritenga ira whakakētia.
Hei tauira, ko te 1111 (kotahi mano, kotahi rau kotahi tekau ma tahi) he wehe.
I tua atu i te tataunga o nga matimati kotahi tekau, kua tatauria e ētahi ahurea he ponapua, te mokowā i waenga i ngā matimati, me ngā matimati hoki.
Ko ngā tikanga pakeke pōhatu, tae atu ki ngā rōpū Taketake o American, i whakamahia e tatau ana mo te peti, ngā ratonga whaiaro, me ngā taonga hokohoko.
I te tīmatanga o te 3500 BC, ka whakakapia ā-nukutia ngā maimai uku e ngā tohu tau e mīharo ana ki tētahi stylus porohita i ngā koki rerekē i ngā pire uku (he ipu tuatahi hei maimai) i tunua ai.
Ka āhua hāngai ēnei tohu tau pukamahi ki ngā tohu tau porohita i whakahōutia e rātou, ā, ka pupuri i te tuhipoka tohu-uara tāpiri o ngā tohu tau porohita.
He pūnaha hiku whāranu ngā tau momo momoho e pupuri ana i te pūtake 10 me te pūtake 6 kē i roto i te raupapa o ngā kaokao poutū me ngā kaokao.
Ko te maha motuhake o nga hōia me ngā mehua o te raiti e puta ana he kōwhiringa motuhake o ēnei tatauranga.
He uaua rawa te tatauranga taketake ki te whakarea me te wehewehe.
I tīmata ngā Hurai ki te whakamahi i tētahi pūnaha ōrite (ngā tau Hiperu), me nga tauira tawhito rawa e mōhiotia ana he moni huri noa i te 100 KORE.
I whakamahia e te Maya o Amerika Waenganui tētahi pūtake whāranu 18 me te pūnaha take 20, he mea tuku iho pea i te Olmec, tae atu ki ngā āhuahira arā atu anō pēnei i te tuhipoka tūnga me te kore.
Ko te mōhiotanga ki ngā whakawaehere o ngā pona me ngā tae i whakamoetia e nga kaiwhakakōrero Spanish i te rau tau 16, ā, kāore anō kia ora ahakoa kei te whakamahia tonutia ngā pūrere pūkete pēnei i ngāwari pēnei i te rohe o Andean.
Ko te kore i whakamahia tuatahitia i Īnia i roto i te CE o te rau tau 7 e Brahmagupta.
Na nga kaikaikarau Arāpi i whakaroa te pūnaha kia whakauru hautau ā-ira, ā, i tuhituhi Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī i tētahi mahi hira mō taua pūnaha i te rau tau 9.
I tohaina te pūnaha ā-rua (pūtake 2), i te rau tau 17 e Gottfried Hibniz.
Ko ngā tāupe me whakaoti te tātai, e kiia ana hoki he kore mōhiotia, ā, ko ngā uara o ngā mea tē mōhiotia e whakamātau ana i te ōritetanga ko ngā rongoā o te tātai.
He pono anake te whārite herenga mō ngā uara o ngā tāupe.
I te nuinga o te wā he kore te taha matau o tētahi whārite.
He ōrite te whārite ki tētahi tauine e whakanohoia ai ngā taumahatanga.
Ko te āhuatanga tīmata tēnei o te āhuahanga taurangi, he wāhanga hira o te pāngarau.
Hei whakatika i ngā whārite o te whānau rānei, ka whakamahi te tangata i ngā pūkenga hātepe, āhuahanga rānei i takea mai i te taurangi paerangi, tātaritanga pāngarau rānei.
He uaua ēnei whārite i te ahuwhānui; kotahi te wā e rapu ana i te nuinga o te wā hei kimi i tētahi rongoā, i te ngaro rongoā rānei, ā, mēnā kei konei, ki te tatau i te maha o ngā rongoā.
I roto i te whakaahuatanga, he rerekē ngā nuinga katoa o te x, y me te z (mēnā he tau tūturu) e tohu ana hei taumaha porohita, ā, he rerekē te taumaha o ia x, y, me te z.
Nō reira, ko te whārite ki R kāore i whakapūtātia ko te whārite ahuwhānui mō te porohita.
Ko te tukanga o te kimi i ngā rongoā, mēnā rānei kei ngā tawhā, e whakaatu ana i ngā mea tē mōhiotia mō ngā tawhā, e kīia ana te whakaoti i te tātai.
Whakarea, whakawehe rānei i ngā taha e rua o tētahi whārite mā tētahi rahinga kore-kore.
Ka tāupetia tētahi whārite taurangi mēnā kotahi anake te tāupe.
I roto i te pāngarau, ko te ariā o ngā pūnaha paerangi te pūtake me tētahi wāhanga taketake o te huarangi paerangi, he kaupapa ka whakamahia ki te nuinga o ngā wāhanga o te pāngarau hou.
Mā tēnei formalism e taea ai e tētahi te whakatau ngā tūnga me ngā āhuatanga o ngā arotahi o te pātata.
Ko tēnei tirohanga, i whakahuahuatia e Descartes, he whakakao, he whakakē hoki i te momo āhuahanga i whakataputia e ngā kaitautapa Greek o neherā.
He taupūtanga whārite Diophantine tētahi mōhiotia ai ngā whakaritenga o te tātai.
Ko te āhuahanga taurangi o nāianei e hāngai ana ki ētahi atu pūkenga tārure o te taurangi whakaahua, otirā ko te tātaitai koaro, me te reo me ngā raruraru o te āhuahanga.
Ko tētahi wāhi o te rererangi nā tētahi ānau taurangi mēnā ka tukuna e ana taururuku tētahi whārite taumaha kua hoatu.
I roto i ngā pāngarau tūturu, ka akona ngā whārite pārōnaki i ngā tirohanga rerekē maha, ko te nuinga o te aro ki ā rātou rongoā - ko ngā taumahi e whakamātau ana i te tātai.
Ko ngā whārite pārōnaki paerangi, he rongoā ka taea te tāpiri me te whakarea mā ngā tau whakarea, he tino tautuhi, kua mārama hoki, ā, ka whiwhia ngā rongoā puka kati.
Ka taea te whakamahi i ngā PDE hei whakaahua i ngā momo tītohunga maha pēnei i te oro, te mahana, te hikohiko, te hikohiko, te rere wai, te tāwariwari, te pūkenga quantum rānei.
Ko te rongoā he tautapa uara ki ngā tāupe tē mōhiotia e tika ana te ōritetanga i roto i te tātai.
Ko te huinga o ngā rongoā katoa o tētahi whārite ko tana rongoā tautuhi.
Kei te āhua tonu o te horopaki, ko te whakaotinga o tētahi whārite ka kitea pea ētahi rongoā (ka nui te kimi rongoā kotahi), te rongoā katoa, te rongoā rānei e whakaae ana ki ētahi atu āhuatanga, pēnei i te whai wā tuku.
I tēnei wā, kāore e taea te whakarārangi i ngā rongoā.
He nui ngā momo tātai, ā, pērā tonu ngā aratuka e ōrite ana.
Tērā pea nā te korenga o te mātauranga pāngarau; I muri noa iho i nga rau tau, ka oti ētahi raruraru te whakaoti.
E puta ana nga taumaha i nga wāhi maha o te pāngarau me te pūtaiao.
He tokomaha nga kaituhi e whakamahi ana i ēnei kupu e rua.
He mea tika, ko te ingoa o te taumaha ko P, ehara i te P(x), engari ko te whakamahinga o ngā rā taumahinga P(x) mai i tētahi wā i kore ai te āhuatanga i waenganui i te taumaha me te taumahi pāhono i te mārama.
Heoi anō, ka whakamahia pea e tētahi ki runga i tētahi rohe i te wāhi kua tautuhia te tāpiritanga me te whakarea (arā, ētahi waea).
Kua tapaina ki ngā ingoa tauwhāiti ngā taumaha iti.
Ko te taumaha 0, e whakaarotia ana kāore he kupu, e kiia ana ko te raumaha kore.
Nā te mea ko te waeine o te taumaha kore-kore te waeine nui rawa o tētahi wāhanga kotahi, he waeine rua tā te taumaha o tēnei taumaha.
Ka taea te whakawātea i ngā tau o ngā whakaritenga me ngā tauwhāiti noa, kia kiia ai he tautahi ngā taumaha kotahi, e kiia ana he tautahi, e kiia ana he taumaha taurua, ā, ko te taumaha e toru ngā wā e kiia ana he taumaha.
Inā whakamahia ana hei tautuhi i tētahi taumahi, kāore te rohe i te ārai.
Ko te taumaha i roto i tētahi taumaha kore hua, e kiia ana ko tētahi taumaha, ko te taumaha i roto i te kotahi kōrero, e kiia ana ko tētahi taumaha maha.
I te take o te āpure o nga tau matatini, he paerangi nga take kore whakahāwea.
Mēnā he nui ake te waeine i te kotahi, kāore he pūmahara o te kauwhata.
I te taurangi tuatahi, ka akona ngā aratuka pēnei i te tātai tapawhā hei whakaoti i ngā waeine tuatahi me ngā whārite taumaha waeine tuarua i roto i te tāupe kotahi.
Heoi anō, ka taea te whakamahi i ngā hātepe kimi pūtake hei kimi i ngā tātaitanga ā-tau o ngā pūtake o tētahi kīanga taumaha o tētahi waeine.
Mai i te rau tau 16, ko ngā tātai ōrite (mā te whakamahi i ngā pūtake kupiki hei tapiri ki ngā pūtake tapawhā), engari he uaua ake te mōhiotia mō ngā whārite waeine toru me te whā (tirohia te whārite hupiki me te whārite koitapa).
I te tau 1830, i kitea e Évariste Galois, ko te nuinga o ngā whārite iti ake i te whā e kore e taea te whakaoti e ngā tokomaha, ā, ka whakaaturia mō ia whārite, ka whakatau mēnā ka taea e te tangata te whakaoti e ngā toketa, ā, mēnā kei te whakatikaina.
Ahakoa rā, kua whakaputaina ngā tātai mō ngā whārite wetewete o ngā waeine 5 me te 6 (tirohia te taumahi quintic me te whārite ā-ira).
Ka āhei ngā hātepe papatono tino māia ki te whakaoti i ngā whārite taumaha (i runga i tētahi rorohiko) kia teitei ake i te 1,000 (tirohia te hātepe papatono kimi-Root).
Mō ētahi tautuhinga whārite rautini i roto i ngā mea maha kāore i te mōhiotia, he hātepe hei whakatau mēnā he maha ngā rongoā matatini tā rātou, ā, mēnā kei te paetata tēnei tau, mō te tātaitai i ngā rongoā.
Ko tētahi whārite taumaha e hiahiatia ana e tētahi ki ngā rongoā he tau tōpū anake e kiia ana ko tētahi whārite Diophantine.
Ka tangohia pea ngā tau whakarea hei tau tūturu, mō ngā taumahi tūturu.
Ko tēnei tauritenga he whakamārama te take i kiia ai he taumaha nga pahekotanga paerangi.
Mō te whakarea i roto i tētahi rīngi, me whakahōutia e "kore-taimau" e "kore-taimau, ehara rānei i te wae" (e whakaae ana ngā tikanga e rua ki te āpure whakarea).
Ina noho ngā tau whakarea ki ngā tau tōpū, ngā tau haumaru, tētahi āpure paetata rānei, he hātepe hei whakamātau i te korekoretanga, hei tatau hoki i te whakarea ki ngā taumaha whakakoretia (tirohia te Factorization o ngā taumaha).
Kei te āhua o te taumaha o tētahi poukapa, kaiwhakarato paerangi rānei ko ngā mōhiohio mō ngā hiranga o te kaiwhakahaere.
Heoi anō, ko te kōrero huatau, whaitake hoki e whakamahia ana e tātau i tēnei rā, i tīmata noa iho i te rau tau kotahi tekau mā 15.
Ka oti i tēnei "te tapawhā, e tahuri ana i te taha mauī hei tapawhā tika."
E kī ana te whakatakoto a Descartes, mō ia whā ki ngā porowhita (me te pātapa), ka whakaaetia e ō rātou radii tētahi whārite tapawhā.
I whakamahia e ngā tohunga pangarau Babylonian mai i te 400 BC me te Chinese nga tohunga pāngarau no te takiwa o te 200 BC i te whakamahi tikanga weahanga mō te wetewete hei whakaoti wharite tapawha me ngā putake pai.
I hangaia e Euclid, te kaikaikarau Greek, tētahi aratuka whakaahua nui ake i te 300 BC.
Ka haere kē atu a Al-Khwarizmi ki te tuku rongoā katoa ki te whārite whāwhā nui, e whakaae ana ki tētahi, e rua rānei ngā whakautu ā-tau mō ia whārite tapawhā, i a ia e tuku ana i ngā whakatika whakarea i roto i te tukanga.
Ko Abū Kāmil Shujābn Aslam (Ihipa, rau tau tekau mā 10) ko te tuatahi ki te whakaae ki ngā tau whakararuraru (i te nuinga o te āhua o te pūtake tapawhā, te iomatua kupiki, te pūtake tuawhā rānei) hei rongoā ki ngā whārite tapawhā, hei tauwhāiti rānei i tētahi whārite.
I takea tōna rongoā i runga anō i nga mahi a Al-Khwarizmi.
Heoi anō, i ētahi wā ka ngaro te tika o te tātai tapawhā nā te hapa whakatata, i te whakapainga tonu o te aratuka āwhīwhiwhi.
I te tīariari ngā tikanga tātai ā-tau, e kīa nei ko te prosthaphaeresis, nāna i tuku pokatata puta noa i ngā mahi pau i te wā pēnei i te whakarea me te whiwhi mana me ngā pakiaka.
Ko ngā hātepe rorohiko mō te kimi i ngā rongoā, he wāhanga hira ia o te ao ā-rārangi tau, ā, he tūranga nui i roto i te pūkaha, te ahupūngao, te matuhi, te pūtaiao rorohiko, me te ohaoha.
Mō ngā rongoā i tētahi rohe tau tōpu pēnei i te rīngi o ngā tau tōpū, i ētahi atu hanganga taurangi rānei, kua hangaia ētahi atu kaupapa, tirohia te whārite Linear ki runga i tētahi rīngi.
Mā tēnei e taea ai te reo me te ariā o ngā mokowā raupapa (nui ake rānei, ngā kōwae) kia mauria.
E mōhiotia ana tēnei pūnaha he pūnaha i raro.
He rongoā ahurei kotahi tō te pūnaha tuarua, arā ko te whakawhitinga o ngā raina e rua.
He rongoā noa iho ētahi o ēnei whārite e rua.
Ko tētahi pūnaha whārite e ōrite ana ngā taha mauī i ngā wā katoa e ōrite ana i ngā wā katoa.
Mā tēnei e tuku i tētahi pūnaha whārite me tētahi whārite iti ake, ā, kotahi iti ake te mōhiotia.
Type 3: Tāpiri ki tētahi haupae he tauine taurea o tētahi atu.
Hei tauira, ka taea te whakaoti i ngā pūnaha whai poukapa tūturu tōrunga pūrite, kia tere tonu te whakaoti me te pūririki Cholesky.
He rite tonu te mahi o tētahi huarahi rerekē mō ngā pūnaha nui rawa, arā, he nui rawa te wā, te pūmahara rānei.
Mā tēnei e ahu atu ki te tauira o nga tikanga whakarihariha.
I roto i te pāngarau, ko tētahi rangatū, ko te āhua kōrero, he whakaahuatanga o te mahinga o te tāpiri i ngā nuinga maha, i muri i tērā atu, ki te nui tīmata kua hoatu.
Tāpiri atu ki tō rātou kino i roto i ngā pāngarau, ka whakamahia whānuitia hoki ngā rangatū mutunga kore i roto i ētahi atu tikanga ine nui pēnei i te ahupūngao, te pūtaiao rorohiko, ngā tatauranga me te pūtea.
E whakaahua ana te parapara a Zeno o Achilles, ā, ko te tuatara i tēnei rawa āhuatanga tātara mutungakore: ko te Achilles e haere ana i muri i te tua tuatahi, engari i a ia e tae ana ki te tūnga o te pukupuku i te timatanga o te oma, kua tae te pukupuku ki te tūnga tuarua; ka tae ia ki te tuarua o nga tūnga, ko te tuatahi o nga tuara te tuarongo, ahakoa pērā tonu.
Kāore tēnei tohenga e whakaatu he ōrite te tapeke ki te 2 (ahakoa kei reira), engari ka kitea i te nuinga o te 2.
Ko ngā whakamātautau mō te ūngutunga ōrite ko te Weierstrass' M-whakamātautau, te whakamātautau ūngutu ōrite a Abel, te whakamātautau a Dini, me te auau Cauchy.
He ōrite te ūngutunga i runga i te kati me te ūkuitanga (arā, he kiato) ngā huinga roto o te kōpae ūngutunga: kia atamai, he ūūtahi ōrite ki ngā huinga kiato.
Ko te rangatū Hilbert-Poincaré he rangatū hiko whai tikanga e whakamahia ana hei ako i ngā taurangi māka.
I te rau tau 17, ka mahi te James Gregory i roto i te pūnaha ira hou i runga i ngā rangatū mutunga kore, ā, ka whakaputaina ētahi rangatū Maclaurin.
I tūtohu a Cauchy (1821) ki nga whakamātautau pākaha o te ūngututanga; I whakaaturia e ia mēnā e rua ngā rangatū e ūngutu ana i tō rātou hua, ā, ka tīmataria e ia te kitenga o ngā paearu tōtika.
Ko te aratuka whakarāpopoto he whakaritenga o tētahi tepenga ki tētahi huinga iti o te huinga rangatū pātapa e toro tika ana i te ariā o te ūngututanga.
Kua whakamahia e nga tohutohu Indian nga tātai whakarea mai i te wā o te rau tau 12.
I ngā reo taumahinga, ka whakatinana tika tonutia te tautuhinga haumarutanga hei whakaahua i ngā taumahi haumaru.
Ka taea e ētahi atu whakatinanatanga (pēnei i ngā pūmanawa rorohiko pēnei i ngā papatono ripakaute) te whakahaere uara nui ake.
I te whakataurite ki te whakamāramatanga Tīpako o te rarangi tuatahi, ka pōturi rawa te tipu o te kaituku-a-i-roto.
Tērā tonu te kōrero, kāore he rongoā ngāwari māmā mō ngā whārea; kāore he pahekotanga mutunga kore o ngā tapeke, hua, mana, taumahi taupūtanga, taupānga taupū rānei, ngā taupū kōaro rānei ka nui te whakaatu ; engari ka taea te kimi i tētahi tātai ahuwhānui mō ngā whakarea mā te whakamahi i ngā utauta pēnei i te tau tōpu me ngā tepenga mai i te tātaitai.
Ko ngā tau tōpū kua kōrerorerotia e tātau, ka pā mai ngā taumahi tua atu, engari ka puta ake hoki te taumahi kāmu i ngā taumahi tino mārō.
Mā te whakarite i ngā tepenga, ka taea hoki te arotake ētahi hua hauora me ngā take maha e kore e taea te arotake mēnā o te taumahi kama hoki.
Ko tōna hītori, i whakaahuatia e Piripi J. Davis i roto i tētahi tuhipānui i riro i te Whakawhiwhinga Chauvenet 1963, e whakaatu ana i te nuinga o ngā whanaketanga nui i roto i te pāngarau mai i te rau tau 18.
Ehara i te kimi tohu motuhake mō ia tātai, me whiwhi aratuka ahuwhānui ki te tāutu i te taumahi kama.
Heoi anō, kāore te taumahi gamma i te whakaae ki tētahi whārite pārōnaki ngāwari.
He painga te iorema Bohr–Mollerup nā te mea he ngāwari noa iho te whakamārama i te āta taupū kōaro mō ētahi o ngā tātai rerekē ka whakamahia hei tautuhi i te taumahi gamma.
I te wāteatanga o ngā rorohiko hiko mō te whakanao ripanga i ngā tau kotahi o te 1950, he maha nga ripanga whānui mō te taumahi gamma matatini i whakaputaina hei whakatutuki i te tono, tae atu ki tētahi ripanga e tika ana kia tika ki te 12 ngā wāhi ira mai i te Pāhi Arowhānui Ā-Motu o U.S.
I roto i te pūtaiao, he tikanga hangarau te tātai ki te whakapuaki i ngā mōhiohio hei tohutohu, pērā ki tētahi tātai pāngarau, tātai matū rānei.
I roto i te pāngarau, ko te tātai e tohu ana i tētahi tuakiri e taurite ana ki tētahi kīanga pāngarau ki tētahi atu, ā, ko ngā mea tino hira hei tautuhinga pāngarau.
Ko te tikanga o tēnei hui, ahakoa he iti iho te hira i roto i tētahi tātai māmā noa iho, ko te tikanga ka tere ake te whānako i ngā tātai ka taea e ngā matatini te whānako i ngā tātai he nui ake, he matatini ake hoki.
Hei tauira, ko H2O te tātai matū mō te wai, e tautuhi ana kia rua ngā ngota hauwai (H) o ia rāpoi ngota me te ngota hāora (O).
I roto i ngā tātai piripiri, ka tīmata ēnei kounga ki tētahi huānga kī kātahi ka tautapa i ngā tau ngota o ētahi atu huānga i roto i te pūhui — hei ōwehenga ki te huānga kī.
Heoi anō, kāore e taea ētahi momo pūhui pīnono te tuhituhi hei tātai pirinoa e pupuri ana anake i ngā tau katoa.
He maha ngā momo o ēnei tātai, tae atu ki ngā tātai rāpoi ngota me ngā tātai whātata.
Ko ngā taumahi i te taketake o te nui o te nuinga rehua i runga i tētahi atu rahinga.
E tohutoro ana te "tēnei tautuhinga o te "kauwhata", ki tētahi huinga takirua ahanoa."
Ki te tautuhi te rohe me te codomain i ngā tau tūturu, ka whakaarotia pea aua takirua hei taunga rōpū Cartesian o tētahi pūwāhi i roto i te rererangi.
I ētahi wā, tērā pea ka tāutua ki te taumahi, engari ka hunaia e tēnei te whakamāramatanga pūnoa o tētahi taumahi hei tukanga.
Ka taea e tētahi mahere te tautuhi hei codomain, i te wā, i roto i ētahi horopaki, i te nuinga o ngā pukapuka tawhito, ko te codomain o tētahi taumahi ko te tautuhi o ngā tau tūturu, matatini rānei.
Ko tētahi atu tauira noa ko te taumahi hapa.
Ka taea te whakamahi i te rangatū hiko hei tautuhi taumahi i runga i te rohe e ūngutu ai.
Kātahi ka taea te whakamahi i te rangatū hiko hei whakarahi ake i te rohe o te taumahi.
Ka waihanga pea ētahi wāhanga o tēnei i tētahi tā e tohu ana i (ngā wāhanga o) te taumahi.
Koinei te whakareatanga tāmautanga o te .
I taua wā, ko ngā taumahi tūturu anake o tētahi tāupe tūturu i whakaarotia, ā, he māeneene katoa ngā taumahi.
Ināianei ka whakamahia ngā taumahi puta noa i ngā wāhi pāngarau katoa.
Pēnei te tautuhi i ngā taumahi hauroki kōaro mā ngā taumahi pākoki, kei reira ngā taumahi pūkorotoru.
He mōhio ake te whaitakenga o te ariā o ngā taumahi uara-maha ina whakaaro ana ki ngā taumahi matatini, i te nuinga o ngā taumahi whakatara.
Ko taua taumahi e kiia ana ko te uara matua o te taumahi.
Ko te papatono taumahinga ko te whakaahua papatono e whai ana i ngā papatono hanganga mā te whakamahi i ngā tukanoa-roto anake e pēnei ana ki ngā taumahi pāngarau.
Hāunga ngā tapanga reo-rorohiko, "taumahi" e whai ana i te tikanga pāngarau pū rite ki te pūtaiao rorohiko.
Ka rāweketia ngā ture mā ētahi ture, (te pānga, te -whakaiti, me te tahuringa), ko ngā āpitihanga o te ariā, ā, ka taea te whakamārama hei ture o te tataunga.
I whakamahia e Nicolas Chuquet tētahi momo tuhipoka taupua i te rau tau 15, i whakamahia ā muri ake nei e Henricus Grammateus me te Michael Stifel i te rau tau 16.
Kia pēnei te tuhituhi o ngā taumaha, hei tauira, hei .
Ko te hua he tau tūturu tōrunga i ngā wā katoa, ā, ko ngā tuakiri me ngā āhuatanga e whakaatu ana i runga ake nei mō ngā pūpūtanga tau tōpū ka noho pono tonu me ēnei tikanga mō ngā taupū tūturu.
E ōrite ana tēnei taumahi ki te pakiaka noa mō ngā tūturu.
Koia tēnei te pūwāhi timata o te ariā pangarau o ngā rōpūpū.
Ka taea anō e tātau te whakakapi i te tautuhi N ki tētahi tau katinara n ki te whiwhi Vn, ahakoa me te kore kōwhiri i tētahi huinga paerewa whāiti me te katinara n, ka tautuhia anake tēnei ki te isomorphism.
Nicolas Bourbaki, Ngā Huānga Pāngarau, Te Ariā o Ngā Huinga, Springer-Verlag, 2004, III.§3.5.
Mā te whakararurarutanga e ahu atu ana ki tētahi atu mahi, ā, ko ētahi atu mahi, he ariā e kiia nei ko hyperoperation.
I ngā tautuhinga hoatu, ka tauiratia e ngā taumahi pānga taupū he pātahitanga kei roto i tētahi huringa taimau i roto i te tāupe takitahi, ka puta ai te huringa ōrite (arā, te nui ōrau, te hekenga rānei) i roto i te tāupe takitini.
Mā tēnei āhuatanga taumahi e ahu ki te tupu taupūtanga, ki te hinganga tauputanga rānei.
Waihoki, kei runga tonu te hanganga ki runga i ngā taumahi (surjective).
Kātahi ka taea e te tangata te hanga ngā mekameka o nga huringa e tito tahitia ana, pēnei i te .
E kiia ana tēnei tuhipoka whirinoa ko te not notation kuhimua.
Ko te kāwai o ngā huinga me ngā taumahi hei tautuhi, ko te kāwai taupū.
Hei tauira, ko te tepere (dB) he wae i whakamahia hei whakaputa ōwehenga hei taupū kōaro, ko te nuinga mō te hiko irirangi me te āhuatanga (he tauira noa te pēhanga oro).
Ka āwhina rātou ki te whakaahua i ngā ōwehenga auau o ngā wā pūoro, ka puta i ngā tātai e tatau ana i ngā tau matua, ngā whakarea rānei, whakamōhio atu ki ētahi tauira i roto i te ahupūnga ā-tuhi, ā, ka taea te āwhina ki te kaute ā-tuhituhi.
Ko te tau tōpū panuku ko te 4, arā ko te tau o ngā mati o te 1430.
I mua i te hanganga a Napier, he āhuatanga anō ōrite ngā hōkai, pērā i te whakapapapae, i te whakamahinga rānei o ngā tēpu nekeneke, i hangaia e Jost Bürgi huri noa i te 1600.
Ko te kōrero i tētahi tau e hiahiatia ana he nui rawa ngā whika, he āhuatanga kino ki te taupū kōaro noa iho, a, e kīia ana e Archimedes hei "raupapa o te tau".
Ko aua tikanga pēnei e kiia ana ko te tāpaopaopa.
Hei tauira, ko ia ruma o te anga o te pūnaha he tārua āwhīwhiwhi o tērā e whai ake nei, i tauinetia e tētahi āhuatanga taimau.
E hono ana hoki ngā taupū kōaro ki te ōritetanga o te tangata.
Ka whakamahia hei ine i te ngaromanga o ngā taumata ngaohiko i te tare i ngā tohu hiko, hei whakaahua i ngā taumata hiko o ngā oro i roto i ngā mataaho, me te māmātanga o te mārama i ngā pāraetanga tongi me ngā whakaata.
I te nuinga o te 3 he pH o te winika.
Tēneiture", he iti iho te tūturu i ngā tauira hōu ake, pēnei i te ture hiko Stevens's.)"
Ki te whai tūaritanga pūnoa te taupū kōaro o tētahi tāupe matapōkere, e kiia ana he tuari rangitaki pūnoa tō te taurangiroto.
Mō tēnei tauira, kei runga te taumahi āheinga i tētahi tawhā kia whakaarohia.
Waihoki, ko te hātepe papatono kōmaka o te hanumi e kōmaka rārangi kāore i whakaritea mā te whakawehe i te rārangi kia haurua me te kōmaka i ēnei i mua i te hanumitanga o ngā hua.
Whakamahia e ngā taupū Lyapunov ngā taupū kōaro hei tātari i te waewae o te ngangau o tētahi pūnaha hihiri.
Ka taea te tapatoru Sierpinski (whakaahua) te hipoki e toru ngā tārua o ia anō, ko ia taha e hawhe ana te roanga taketake.
Ko tētahi atu tauira ko te taupū kōaro p-adic, te taumahi kōaro o te panga p-adic.
Mā te whakahaere i te taupū ka taea te mahi pai, engari e whakapono ana te taupū kōaro he tino uaua ki te tatau i ētahi rōpū.
Ka taea te kōrerorerotia ngā pūtake tapawhā o ngā tau tōraro i roto i te anga o ngā tau matatini.
I Īnia Tawhito, ko te mōhiotanga o ngā āhuatanga ā-ariā me ngā āhuatanga hoatu o te tapawhā me te pakiaka tapawhā, he iti iho te pakeke ki ngā Sutras Sulba, i te tawhito o te 800–500 BC (tērā pea i mua noa atu).
He āhua ōrite te reta jīm ki te hanga iomatua tapawhā o nāianei.
Ka whakamārama i tētahi ariā hira o te ine mahora ka whakamahia i roto i te ariā tūponotanga me ngā tatauranga.
He pātuhi iomatua tapawhā te nuinga o ngā tātaitai pūkoro.
Ko te uauatanga o te wā mō te tātai rorohiko i tētahi pūtake tapawhā me ngā mati e ōrite ana ki tērā o te whakarea o ngā tau n-mati e rua.
Ko nga raruraru o Hilbert e rua tekau mā toru i roto i te pāngarau i whakaputaina German, ko te kaiako o David Hilbert i roto i 1900.
Mō ētahi atu raruraru, pērā ki te 5, kua whakaae tūturu ngā tohunga ki tētahi whakamāramatanga kotahi, ā, kua tukua he rongoā ki te whakamāramatanga e whakaaetia ana, engari he raruraru kāore anō kia tata te wātea.
E rua ngā raruraru kāore i te rāhuitia anake engari kāore anō pea kia rāhuitia e ngā paerewa o nāianei.
Ko ērā atu raruraru e rua tekau mā tahi kua tino aro mai, a, i te mutunga o te rua tekau o nga rau tau e mahi ana i runga i ēnei raruraru ka tino nui rawa atu te mahi.
I noho a Hilbert mo te 12 tau i muri i te whakaputanga a Kurt Gödel i tōna mārama, engari kāore anō kia tuhituhi i tētahi urupare tika ki te mahi a Gödel.
Ki te kōrerorero i tōna whakaaro me whai rongoā ia raruraru pāngarau, ka whakaae te Hilbert ki te tūpono ka noho te rongoā hei whakatika e kore e taea te raru taketake.
Ko te tuatahi o ēnei i whakamatauria e Bernard Dwork; He tino rerekē te whakatika o te rua tuatahi, mā te māngaitanga o ℓ-adic, i hoatu e Alexander Grothendieck.
Heoi, ko nga weil conjectures, i roto i to ratou whānuitanga, he rite tonu ki tētahi Hilbert problem kotahi, ā, kore rawa a Weil i whakaritea hei kaupapa mō ngā pāngarau katoa.
Erdős i ētahi wā i tukuna ai he utu moni; I runga i te uaua o te raruraru e kitea ana te rahi o te utu.
I te itinga rawa o te pāpāho whakahaurangi, ko te tairitenga de facto 21 century o ngā raruraru o Hilbert, ko te rārangi o ngā Raruraru Whakawhiwhinga Arikiona e whitu i kōwhiria i te wā o te 2000 e te Kura Pāngarau Clay.
E mōhiotia ana te ariā Riemann mo tōna āhua i runga i te rārangi o ngā raruraru Hilbert, te rārangi a Smale, te rārangi o ngā Raruraru Whakawhiwhinga Millennium, me ngā tikanga weil, i tōna matau whakarea.
1931, 1936 tua 3 I hoatu ki ngā tapamaha e rua o te rōrahi ōrite, e taea ranei te tapahi i te tuatahi ki roto i nga wahi maha rawa e taea te whakaara anō hei hua i te tuarua?
— 12 whakaroa atu te Kronekāka–Weber i runga i ngā toronga Abelian o ngā tau hauhau ki tētahi āpure tau pūtake.
1959 te tua15 o te tūranga tātai e Schubert's tekau.
1927 18 (a) He papamaha tērā e whakaae ana ki te āhua kotahi anō kia toru ngā ahu o te ara? (b) He aha te pūwhakaha porowhita?
Ko te tau he ahanoa pāngarau e whakamahia ana hei tatau, ine, tapanga hoki.
He mea nui ake, ka taea te whakaatu i ngā tau takitahi e ngā tohu, e kiia ana ko ngā tau; hei tauira, he tatau te "5" e tohu ana i te tau e rima.
Ko ngā tataunga me ngā tau e mahia ana ki ngā mahi whakaritenga, ko te tino tauwhāiti he tapiritanga, he awhetanga, he whakarea, he wehewehenga, me te taupūtanga.
Gilsdorf, Thomas E. He Kupu Whakataki ki te Tikanga Ahurea: Me nga rangahau take i roto i nga Otomies me Incas, John Wiley & Sons, Hui-tanguru 24, 2012.Restivo, S. pangarau i roto i te Hapori me te Hītori, Springer Science & Business Media, Noema 30, 1992.
I te wā o te rau tau 19, ka tīmata nga kaitarau ki te hanga i ngā whakawaitara rerekē maha e tiritiri ana i ētahi āhuatanga tau, ā, ka kitea pea he whakawhānui i te ariā.
Kāore he ariā o te pūnaha tataunga ki te uara wāhi (pēnei i te āhua o te tekauira o nāianei), e whakawhāiti ana i tōna whakaaturanga o ngā tau nui.
Ko te Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta a Brahmagupta te pukapuka tuatahi e kōrero nei i te kore hei tau, nō reira ko Brahmagupta te tikanga he tuatahi hei tātai i te ariā o te kore.
I tētahi uaua ōrite, i whakamahia e Pāṇini (rau tau 5) te tohutūmahi kore (kore) i te Ashtadhyayi, he tauira moata o tētahi wetereo taurangi mō te reo Sanskrit (tirohia hoki te Pingala).
Nā te 130 AD, o Ptolemy, i awea e ngā Hipparchus me ngā Babylonian, e whakamahi ana i tētahi tohu mō te 0 (he porohita iti me tētahi paerua roa) i roto i tētahi pūnaha tatauranga momo me te whakamahi i ngā tau Kariki reta.
I kōrerorerotia mārama aketia te tohutoro o Diophantus e te kaiako Indian o Brahmagupta, i Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta i te tau 628, nāna i whakamahi i ngā tau tōraro hei whakaputa i te tātai puka whāwhā ahuwhānui e whakamahia ana i tēnei rā.
I taua wā kotahi, i te whakaatu te Chinese i ngā tau tōraro mā te tā i te hahau hauroki mā te mati matau-kore-kore o te tatau tau tōrunga e ōrite ana.
Ko nga kaupapa ā-ariā o te pūkākāriki Greek me ngā Indian i whakaako i te ariā o ngā tau haumaru, he wāhanga o te whakaakoranga āhuwhānui o te tau ariā.
E hono tata ana te ariā o ngā hautanga tekauira ki te tautuhi ā-ira-uara; Te āhua nei kua whakapiria te tokorua.
Heoi, i whakapono a Pythagoras ki te tino tika o nga tau, a, kaore i taea te whakaae ki te putanga o nga tau tōkeke.
Tae noa ki te rau tau 17, ka whakamahia nuitiatia te hau ira me te taupānga o te nuinga o te rau tau.
I 1872, ko te korerotanga o nga kaupapa a Kāra Weierstras (na tana tauira ko E. Kōsake), ko Eduard Heine, George Cantor, ko Richard Dedekind i kawea mai.
Ko te Weierstrass, Cantor, me Heine e tu ana i a rātau ariā i runga i ngā rangatū mutunga kore, i kitea e te Dedekind tōna ariā mō tētahi tapahi (Schnitt) i roto i te pūnaha o ngā tau tūturu, e wehe ana i ngā tau hautanga katoa ki ngā rōpū e rua whai āhuatanga.
Nō reira me whakaaro koe i te huinga whānui ake o ngā tau taurangi (ngā rongoā katoa ki ngā whārite raumaha).
Aristotle i tautuhia te ariā Western tūturu o te kore pāngarau.
Engari ko te tino kōkiri o muri o te kaupapa i mahia e te Georg Cantor; i te tau kotahi mano, i te tau1895, i whakaputaina e ia tētahi pukapuka mo tana ariā tautuhi hou, e whakamōhiotia ana, me ētahi atu mea, ko ngā tau huinga me te whakatakoto i te pēhi.
He putanga whakarea hōu o te paenga ināianei e hoatu ana e te āhuahanga pūwhiti, e whakamōhiotia ana "ngā ira tino pai ki te paenga kore, kotahi mō ia aronga mokowā."
Engari i puta mai te ariā mo te whakairo o ngā tau matatini, i te wā tata tonu o te 1685, i roto i ngā Wallis's De algebra tractatus.
I te 240 BC, i whakamahia e Motuosthenes te Sieve o Takosthenes kia tere te wehe i ngā tau tuatahi.
Ko ētahi atu kitenga e pā ana ki te tuaritanga o nga taumata tuatahi ko te whakatika a Euler ko te tapeke o nga tauira tuatahi, me te Goldbach te kuputuhi, e kī ana he nui rawa te tau, ko te tapeke o nga tau matua e rua.
I tīmataria te raupapa o ngā tau tūturu ki te 1 (0 kāore i whakaarotia he tau mō te Ancient Greeks.)
I tēnei pūnaha 10, he uara wāhi tō te tau tūturu o te tau tūturu o te 1 i roto i tēnei pūtake, ā, kotahi tekau ngā uara wāhi o te uara wāhi o te wāhi o te mati ki te taha matau.
Ko te nuinga o te wā ka tuhia ngā tau tōraro me te tohu tōraro (tohu tango).
Ki konei ka tae mai te reta o Z .
Ka taea te nui ake i, iti iho, ōrite rānei ki te 1 ngā hautanga, ā, ka taea hoki te tōrunga, te tōraro, te 0 rānei.
Mā te kōwae e whai ake nei e arotahi i runga i ngā tau tūturu tōrunga.
Heoi, he tauira, ko te haurua ko te 0.5, ko te tuarima ko te 0.2, ko te kotahi whakatekau ko te 0.1, kotahi te rima tekau ko te 0.02.
Ehara i te mea ko ēnei tauira tūturu anake engari ko ngā tau tūturu katoa he tūturu noa iho, nō reira kāore ōna tauira tukurua, nō reira kāore he tauira ira e ōrite ana.
Nō te mea kāore te mati tuarua i muri i te tiakitanga o te tekauira, kāore ngā mati e whai ake nei i te hira.
Hei tauira, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., he tohu te katoa i te tau tūturu 1.
Kātahi, mēnā he 0 ngā mati katoa i roto i te tau, ko te tau ko te 0, ā, mēnā he aho kore tuku o te 9, ka taea e koe te whakataka i nga iwa ki te taha matau o te wāhi tekauira, me te tāpiri i tētahi ki te aho 9 ki te taha mauī o te tekauira.
Nā reira ko ngā tau tūturu he huingaiti o ngā tau matatini.
Ko te tautuhinga taketake o te taurangi e kī ana ko ngā tau matatini he āpure kati ā-taurangi, arā, he pakiaka ia taumaha me ngā tauwhāiti matatini i roto i ngā tau matatini.
Neke atu i te 2000 tau kua whakamātauria nga tau matua, a, he maha ngā pātai, ko ētahi anake o ēnei kua whakautua.
Ko ngā tau tūturu ehara i te tau hauhau, e kiia ana he tau tōkeke.
He mau tonu ngā tau tātai rorohiko mō ngā mahi tauhanga pūnoa, tae atu ki te tātaitanga o ngā pūtake o te taumaha, ā, mā reira ka hangaia tētahi āpure kati tūturu e mau ana i ngā tau taurangi tūturu.
Ko tētahi take, kāore he hātepe papatono hei whakamātau i te ōritetanga o ngā tau tatau e rua.
Kei te āhua o te pūnaha tau e hua ana ki te pūtake e whakamahia ana mō ngā mati: ka taea te pūtake, engari ko te pūtake tau matua e tuku ana i ngā āhuatanga pāngarau tino pai rawa.
Ka hoatu e te tuatahi te raupapa o te rōpū, i te wā e hoatu ana te rahi o te toru.
Ma tēnei paerewa e whakatau nga tau matatini he rererangi Cartesian, e huaina ana ko te waka rererangi matatini.
Ko ngā tau matatini o te uara pūmau, kotahi te āhua o te porohita wae.
Ki te tae rohe i ngā ahu huaputa, he tohu kē nā te tae me te tīahoaho.
Mā te mahi i te raru o ngā taumaha ahuwhānui i mua, ka tae atu ki te taurangi take nui o te algebra, e whakaatu ana kei roto i ngā tau matatini, he rongoā tīari ki ia whārite pūmaha o te waeine kotahi, teitei ake rānei.
I puta mai te Wessel memoir i ngā Takahanga o te Wāhanga o Kopenhākā, engari i tino kore e mōhiotia.
Ko ētahi o ngā kaituhi o muri ake o te kaupapa ahuwhānui ko Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Puincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Kāra Weierstras me ētahi atu tokomaha.
Kāore i whakaae whānuitia te whakamahinga o ngā tau pohewa tae noa ki te mahi a Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) me Te Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).
Ka hangaia e ngā tau tōpū te rōpū iti rawa me te rīngi iti rawa e pupuri ana i ngā tau tūturu.
Ko te tauiraira o nga ahanoa katoa o tērā hanganga taurangi.
Ko nga momo raraunga tata tau tōpū roa (he huinga iti ranei) e tohuhia ana int, Integer ranei i roto i te maha o nga reo papatono (pēnei i te Algol68, C, Java, Delphi, etc.).
He āhuatanga āhei ēnei o ngā tau hautanga me ngā pūnaha tau tūnga, ā, kāore e whakamahia hei whakamāramatanga i roto i te pāngarau.
Mai i ngā motu o te tapatoru, a = b).
Nā te c ahakoa, ko te whakawehenga o c mā te 2 ka puta he tau tōpū.
Ko te hauraro 4y2 mō te c2 i roto i te whārite tuatahi (c2 = 2b2) ka homai ki a mātou 4y2= 2b2.
Nō te mea ko b2 tonu, ko te tikanga kia rite tonu te b.
Ahakoa rā, kai te whakahē tēnei i te whakaaro kaore o rātau take noa iho.
Heoi anō, kaore a Hippasu i whakamihi mo ana mahinga: kia rite ki tētahi poutohu, ka kitea e ia i a ia i te moana, a, muri iho ka makaia e ona hoa ko Pythagoreans mo te mea i hanga i tētahi huānga i te ao nui e whakahē ana i te... ka taea te whakaiti i nga āhuatanga tītahu katoa i te ao nui ki te katoa o te tau me te ōwehenga."
Hei tauira, whakaarohia tētahi wāhanga raina: ka whakaweheruatia tēnei wāhanga, kia haurua te ritua, te haurua o te hawhe, me ērā atu mea.
Ko te mea tonu tēnei i rapu ai a Zeno kia whakamatautaina.
I roto i nga hinengaro o nga Kariki, kāore i tino whakaaturia te mana o tētahi atu tirohanga, nō reira me mahi anō he whakamatautau.
He nui "... ehara i te tau engari i tū mō ngā mea pēnei i ngā wāhanga raina, ngā koki, ngā rohe, ngā rōrahi, me te wā rerekē, e pērā tonu ki ta mātau e kī ai.
Nā te mea kāore i whakaritea ngā uara ine nui, kātahi anō ka taea e Eudoxus te pūkete mō ngā ōwehenga tautoko, ōrau rānei mā te whakarite i tētahi ōwehenga mō tōna nui, me te ōritetanga hei ōritetanga i waenganui i ngā ōwehenga e rua.
E mahi ana tēnei hotokore i ngā Huānga o Euclid, Pukapuka X, Take 9.
I te nui o nga take i whakaritea anōtia nga āhuatanga āhuahanga ki nga whakaritenga whakarea.
Ko te mōhiotanga ko ētahi o ngā whakaaro taketake i roto i te ariā o nāianei i tūpono ki tērā e hiahiatia ana he tūhuratanga tika, āta tirotiro i nga raruraru me ngā whakaaro e āta whakaaro ana i taua ariā.
Heoi anō, ka tuhituhi te tumu kōrero Carl Benjamin Boyer ekāore i te mōhiotia ēnei kerēme, ā, kāore e tino pono"."
Ko ngā mātauranga ariā pēnei i a Brahmagupta (i roto i te 628 AD) me Bhāskara I (i te 629 AD) i mahi koha ki tēnei rohe pērā ki ērā atu kaitautapa ka whai ake.
I te tau i kite ai 1872 i te pukapuka o nga kaupapa a Karl Weierstrass (i tana tauira, o Ernst Kossak), Eduard Heine (Crelle's Journal, 74), George Cantor (Annalen, 5), me Richard Dedekind.
I kitea e Weierstrass, Cantor, me Heine a rātou ariā i runga i ngā rangatū mutunga kore mutunga kore, i te kitenga o Dedekind i a runga i te ariā o tētahi tapahanga (Schnitt) i roto i te pūnaha o ngā tau haumarutanga katoa, e wehe ana i a rātou ki ngā rōpū e rua whai āhuatanga.
I tāpiritia hoki e Dirichlet ki te kaupapa āhuwhānui, he tini nga kaitohutohu ki nga tono o te kaupapa.
E kī ana tēnei he whakawāwātanga ahurei ia tau tōpū ki roto i nga tauwhāinga.
Hei whakaatu i tēnei, me whakaaro ka wehe tātau i ngā tau tōpū n m (kei reira kē te m).
Ki te kore e taka te 0, ka taea te hātepe papatono te whakahaere i te nuinga o ngā hipanga m − 1 me te kore e whakamahi i te toenga neke atu i te kotahi.
I roto i te pāngarau, ko ngā tau tūturu e whakamahia ana hei tatau (pēnei i "e ono nga moni i runga i te ripanga) me te raupapa (pēnei i ""ko te tāone nui rawa tēnei i te whenua")."
Mā ēnei mekameka toronga ka hangaia ngā tau tūturu i te tāmau (tāutu) i ērā atu pūnaha tau.
I roto i ngā hinengaro o ngā Kariki, kāore i tino whakaaturia te mana o tētahi atu tirohanga, nō reira me mahi anō he whakamatautau.
